Education of India in Ancient Period

Introduction:

Education system of a nation is an integral part of its culture and value system that reflects the constituent forces of a nation’s life. The character of a state, its socio-political and economic condition and the distinctive identity of the people influences national culture and education. Education of a nation does not simply reflect the nation’s past it reflects the present values, demands and needs of life too. A system of education is the creator, conserver and custodian of the nation’s culture. Crises of education arise when there is a gap between the ancient and present culture, between spiritual and material bases of life and between tradition and progress of life. The roots of many current problems of education are to be discovered through the study of history of education properly. A present system of education simultaneously reflects the past, present and the projected future. The educational thought of Mahatma Gandhi is the reflection of the glorious past, ancient tradition, values and culture. The present culture and education of India is the solid absorption of Vedic-Brahmanic education, Budhistic education, Islamic and British education. Culture and education represents continuity from the ancient, through the Mediaval and to the Present. Several Social, political, economic, geographical and cultural factors are there to form the shape of education of a certain period.

Geographical features of Ancient Bengal: Geographical limits of ancient South-west Bengal show that the territory is roughly bounded by the Lower Damodar and the sea included in some of the ancient janapadas Radha, suhma and Banga. Tamralipta was distinguished from other janapadas shown in the brihatsamhita. The existence of Suhma and Vanga is known from the epics, the Puranas and the Buddhist and Jain texts. It is known from the Puranas and the Mahabharata that by the name of Dirghatama sage the five provinces of ancient Bengal-‘Anga’, (Bhagalpur), ‘Kalinga’(Orissa’), ‘Pundra’(North Bengal), Suhmma’(West Bengal), ‘Banga’ (East and South Bengal) emerged.[1]  Earliest Brahmanical culture , missionary activities of Parsvanatha and Mahavira and the influence of the holy spot at the confluence of the Ganga and the Sagara referred in the epics, jaina kalpa sutra, acharanga sutra and Manusamhita  shaped and formed the ancient features of education of Bengal. Social-economic and political domination also played a vital role in shaping the salient features of education.

Factors Influenced Ancient Indian Education:

1.    It is amply proved that the civilization of our country has been greatly influenced by the both Aryan and Non-Aryan culture. The Aryans emphasized on spirituality. The Non-Aryans were skilled on arts, literature and constructive works. Both the spirituality of the Aryans and constructive excellence of the Non-Aryans influenced and reflected in ancient Indian education.

2.    Religious and Philosophical thoughts also influenced ancient education. Religion in ancient India represented certain basic ways and considered as a regulating principle of every sphere of life. The humanitarian appeal of Vedic religion became an absorbing cauldron with ‘humanity’ Social and economic influences are also equally powerful in shaping the ideals of education.

3.    The geographical environment nurtures human nature that reflects education. The human thoughts and activities differ region to region. The Aryans settlement in the Ganga-Yamuna valley gave them advantages of fertile soil and relieved them of hard struggle for existence. Dr. Radha Krishnan observes, ‘For thinking minds to blossom, for arts and sciences to flourish, the first condition necessary is a settled society providing security and leisure.’ Relieving from the stress and strain of nomadic life the Aryans could engage in search of truth. The nature’s bounty and quiet grandeur helped their free thinking and speculative mind. The output was the Vedic literature literary development.

4.     The social system during the Vedic period regulates the educational system. The ‘Chaturashrama’ and ‘Varnashrama’ imparted social values which were reflected in education. Education according to ‘varna’ became a principle. The ‘shudras’ got no scope of education. The ‘Brahmanas’, ‘Khatriyas’ and ‘Vaishas’ got the opportunity to receive education. The caste division led to vocational education.

5.    The ancient philosophy propounded by the Rishis controlled educational concepts and aims. The six philosophies ‘ Sankhya’, ‘ Yoga’, ‘ Niaya’, ‘Vaishesik’, ‘ Purba Mimansha’, and ‘ Uttar mimansha’ stelled the goal of life and destroyed the evils of ignorance. The expression ‘Veda’ means knowledge and ‘wisdom’ means the knowledge of the ultimate reality- the supreme self. The ultimate goal of education defined by philosophy is self-realisation-the realization of the absolute self through self-control and detachment from hedonistic life. In ancient time Yoga and Meditation became an indispensible part of education to control passions of life called ‘Chitta-Britti-Nirodha’. Education means acquisition of Truth and wisdom.  Education helps the illumination in the mental world to wipe out the darkness of ignorance. Education means salvation and complete bliss in mind. Salvation cannot be attainable only through the attainment of knowledge but by truth. By practice and application of knowledge wisdom appears and it is transformed into power. The exploration of inner self by the power of meditation is education. The knowledge of salvation is the ‘Paravidya’ and knowledge of worldly affairs was ‘Apara vidya’. Both ‘Paravidya’and ‘Apara vidya’ together made complete education. Mahatma Gandhi gave emphasis on both ‘Paravidya’and ‘Apara vidya’ to reach the goal of education.

Aims of Education:

Education for self-sacrifice and salvation is the basic aim of ancient education. The concept of three debts- the debt to parents for acquiring parenthood, debt to the Gods for performing yajan and debt to the Rishis for perpetuating the quest for knowledge are the sourcefaunt of such aim. The performance of self sacrifices would lead to self- realization to realize the Brahma –the supreme self for the attainment of salvation. Ancient education was explained as some imperative duties of individual as Adhyayana, Siksha and Vinaya. Ancient education shows that instruction, training and social motivation were the integral parts of education. These three integral parts are the essential components of Gandhian philosophy of education. The recognition of social duties was the acceptance of politics, military science, moral science, laws, medicine and vocational preparation as curricular subjects called ‘Apara vidya’

Periodisation: The first phase Vedic education continues from 1500 B.C. to 300 B.C. The long period may be sub-divided Rig Vedic, Later Vedic and sutra phase. Vedas, Vedangas, Vedantas and Sutra literature were the contributors of Brahmanic system of education. The second phase continued from 300 B.C. to the post Mourya days was marked by the Buddhism and successive foreign invasion in the post Mourya era. The third phase starting from the Sunga age to the downfall of Kanouj and the advent of Turko-Afgan power was marked by the resurgence and co-existance of Brhmanic education with Buddhist system of education and interaction between the both.

The system of Education: Education during the Vedic phase was marked by the residential pupilage. The cottage of each Guru became a residential school called gurukul. During Brahmacharya students had to live in Gurukul and received constant company of the Guru who was a human ocean of learning and an ideal character for the pupils for illumination their lives from the darkness of ignorance.

The students living in Gurukul had to follow strict discipline and inviolable rules and regulations. There were no tuition fees and students had to contribute manual labour. Mahatma Gandhi developed his Ashramic views of education on the ancient Gurukul system of education. Constant company of the Gurus and fellow students guaranteed physical and mental perfection. The collective life developed social sense and responsibility. The teacher a father-substitute was the friend, philosopher and guide. Admission in Gurukul and initiation was marked by the Upanayana ceremony. Relation between Teachers and students was regulated by reciprocal service and duties. The teacher enjoyed high esteem and social prestige.

Curricula:  The curriculum was formulated on the firm foundation of Vedas, Vedangas and Vedanta. Sudras and Vratyas had no scope to receive formal education. They received practical training in their family trade or profession. It is known from the ‘Sathapath Brahman’ and ‘Taiterio Aranyak’ that various subjects are taught to the pupils living in Gurukul. They are Phonetics, matrics, Ritualistic knowledge, Grammar, Exegetics, Astrology, theological discourses, cosmological myths, explanation of Mantras, Retualistic verses, Science of numbers, Science of lunar mansion, Astronomy, Demonology, Science of snakes, Science of conduct, Science of worship of God, Science of Art and Music and many other subjects.

Methods of Teaching: ‘Shrabana, Manana, and Nididhyasana’ were the methods of learning. The teachers had to deliver knowledge by mouth and the students had to hear and to preserve in memory. The students were encouraged to realize the contents of learning through concentrated thinking, yoga and meditation. The teaching-learning process is followed these underlying stages. Sir Maxmullar opined on the methods of teaching which is worthy to be mentioned. “The young Brahmins who learnt the songs of Veda, the Brahmanas, the Sutras, invariably learnt them from oral tradition and knew them from heart. They spent year after year under the guidance of their teacher, learning a little, day after day, repeating what they had learnt as part of their daily devotion until at last they had mastered their subjects and abled to become teachers in turn”[2]

‘Susrusha’(desire to listen)- ‘Srabanam’(act of hearing)- ‘Grahanam’(accepting)- ‘Dharanam’(digestion)- ‘Uhapoho’(digestion of what has been taken in), ‘Arthabiganam’(grasping the correct sense) and ‘Tatyaganam’(knowledge  of profound truth) were the principles of learning.

At the end of 12 years of rigorous student hood a terminal function called ‘Samavartana’ was held and successful Vidyarthi after participation in debates, discussions and assemblies, was conferred degree. Snataks were three types-i)Vidya snatak,(who had attained intellectual proficiency) ii) ‘Vrata snatakas’(who had attained perfection in practices) and iii) ‘Vidya- Vrata Snatakas’(who excelled in both theory and practices).

Gurukul, Parishada, Ashrama, Chatuspathi and Tol were the educational institutions. Women enjoyed the privilege of receiving education. The society and state patronized education. Caste system in society made the system narrow and conservative in character. Teachers deserve the place parents. A teacher “must have a fluent delivery, readiness of wit, presence of mind, a great stock of interesting anecdotes and must be able to expound the most difficult texts without any difficult or delay.

 ‘In a word he should be not only a scholar but also adept in teaching” [3]“Teachers in ancient India regarded their profession as nobler and higher than any other profession”[4]  Teacher-student relation, spiritual and moral urge of education, free education and dignity of labour related to Ashramic activities are some special features of ancient education.

 Important Aspects of Ancient education during Rig-Vedic Period:

In ancient time religion was the fundamental principle of life. It is a transcendental communion with the Divine Entity. Religion consists of regulating principles of every sphere of life. Education had no exception from it. Religious influence made education implying morality, virtue and duty. Education of yoga made man to attain self-fulfillment called ‘Chittya vritti Nirodhd’. The ultimate educational goal was self-realization through ‘Tapa’, ‘Samadhi’, ‘Diksha’, ‘yoga’ and ‘ Sannyasa’. The value education of Mahatma Gandhi lies on this. Education meant the knowledge of ‘Atman’ through annihilation of desire and self-revelation. Buddhism believed in ‘Karma’ and Rebirth. The important features of Rig-Vedic education were-i) Gurukul education, ii) Brhmacharya, iii) moral fitness of pupils, iv) Paternal teacher-pupil relation, v) Manifestation of the absolute – the Supreme being, vi) reverence to cosmic laws as the roots of all creation. vii)  The girls had the privileges to receive education as ‘Brahmabadinis’

Important aspects of Ancient education during Later-Vedic period: 

During the later Vedic period the educational institutions named as Sakhas, Charanas, Parishads, Kulas, Gotras were well organized. Upanayana was the mark of pupilage in Gurukul. The period of studentship was twelve years. The attitude towards the dignity of labour was taught through begging, tending cattle and collecting woods (Samidh) from the forest. There was scope of acquisition of higher knowledge and pursuit of knowledge is a lifelong process. The teachers had the parental attitude to teach their student. He had to have a strong desire to impart knowledge as it was considered their duties. The women sect had enjoyed educational rights and become famous for learning. Paravidya and Aparavidya were taught. Subjects of study were numerous than in the early Vedic period. There were Brahmavidya (Ved, Vedanga), Bhuta vidya (Demonology), Nakshatra vidya (Jyotish), Nidhi Sutra (sacrificial rituals). Subjects were taught through Question and Cross question-answer technique. Yoga was introduced for the attainment of higher knowledge. Meditation would ensure revelation. Sravana, Manana and Nididhyasana were the essential part of learning. Educational institutions were run by the Royal patronage. The Brahmins were taught Brahma vidya, the Khatriyas were taught Dhanur vidya, Khastra vidya, the vaisyas were taught agricultural education and the Sudras were to get training of pasture, cattle rearing, and arts and crafts.

Education in the Epic period:

During the Epic period several changes related to religion, politics and economy took place. The growth of powerful kingdom, the dominance of Khatriya community in polity, the division of society into castes, and the rise of metropolitan and subsidiary towns all these changes influenced upon  education and culture. The Varnashrama and Chaturashrama played a vital role in education. Varnashrama was closely allied to vocational occupations and it was reflected more in practical and vocational education. Contemporary literature of Panini and Patanjali showed 64 arts and vocational pursuits. Studies were selected judging the capacity of the students. Ideal students of this age were Aruni, Uddalak and Kacha. The growth of Ashramic education had several departments and branches of learning. They were Agnisthana ( place of worship), Brhmasthana (place of study), Vishnusthana (place for teaching political science), Mahendrasthana (place of military education), Vivasvatas sthana(astronomy), somasthana(Botany) and Garudasthana(transport andconveyance). Khatriyas achieved a prominent place in receiving education of archery, Niti, Military arts and Puranas. Family laws, sciences, music fine arts and legends were taught. Women would receive education. Wife of Gargya and daughter of Sandilya showed excellent learning. Dramatic society was noticed in Ayodhya. Extension lecture and debates were often organized in towns. A typical urban culture was the contribution of this age.

Buddhist Education:

Budhistic education aimed at ‘Niravana’ through moral steadfastness and dettachment. Religious thought influenced Buddhist education more than political or social forces. The history of Buddhist education is the history of Buddhist sangharam and here lies the difference with the Brahmanic system of education.[5]

Buddhist education marked a prominent change in system of Brahmanic education. Brahmanic education had been monopolized by the Brahmins but Buddhist education challenged that predominance and made education possible to reach to all sects. Education became institutionalized and mass education. Five thousand Viharas spread the light of secular education. Prakrit the peoples’ language was the medium of instruction. Budhist education infused elements of democracy, secularism and universalism in Indian education and thus traditional Hindu education got elements of changes and reforms.[6]

  Education of Women in Ancient India:

During the Vedic age the women enjoyed the privilege of receiving education. Learned women were called Brahmabadinis. They participated in religious and spiritual activities. The wives and daughters of Rishis received education. The girls had the privileges to receive education through Upanayana ceremony. Learned daughters were considered as assets of parents.

Vedic India produced a host of learned Brhmabadinis as Romasha, Lopamudra, gargi, Apala, Viswabara, Sabitri, debjani, Maitreyee. Sama and Yajurvedas refer the Brahmacharya of the virgins. The Taittareya Upanishada shows that married women enjoyed right to participate in intellectual discourses. Yajnavalka himself appeared in learned debate with Gargi at the court of king Janaka. The Upanishadas refer the names of women teachers like Sulava, Maitreyee Prathiteyee. There were references in Srauta Sutra and Griha sutra. Women utter Mantras and lighted the fire of Yajan kunda. This tradition continued in the Epic age. Daughter of Sandilya and gargya were learned Brahmacharinis. Sulava participated in learned discussions with king Janaka. Chitrangada proved her military genius and suvadra proved her excellence in chariot driving. Draupadi, Sabitri, Pramila were learned ladies of this age. Women were skilled in painting, spinning, weaving, fine arts, and music, dice –playing, garland stitching work. Buddhism in its early stage did not encourage women education but in the later Ananda pleaded Mahaprajapati Buddha to accept women students into the Sangharam. Buddhistic India produced a galaxy of women like Sujata, soma, Anupama, Khema, Kisa and sramani. The women living in Vihara lived a separate and restricted life. But women education was declined after Manu’s injuctions. He declared that marriage of women is equivalent to reading the Veda and spending Ashramic life. Mahatma Gandhi proposed women education as it was highly recognized during the Vedic period.

   Professional and Vocational Education:

Paravidya is the Brahma vidya and it is pure and heavenly knowledge. Apara vidya helps to lead the worldly life. With the growth of urban life and expansion of empire vocational specialization and secular education gradually increased. Ayurveda was an attractive profession. Charaka, Sasrut, Jivaka were famous Physicians of these days. Military career was open to all but the Khatryas preferred such education. The opening ceremony of military career is called ‘churika Bandana’. Students are taught the theories and practices of military science. Vaishyas were given commercial education. They were well versed in accounting, measuring weight. Training for manual labour was given emphasis. Apprenticeship was extensively in vogue. The development of guilds of various professions came into existence. Krishi sangha, vanik sangha, silpi sangha, Gopalak sangha, Karigar sangha were the evidences of the guilds of different occupations. The Arthasastra of Koutilya gives an elaborate account of various arts and crafts. Weaving and spinning, mineral and metal, and silk industries prove the existence of training for manual industrial production. Education for secular arts and crafts and religious art and architecture continued and flourished in the ancient period. Architecture and Sculpture in building Stupas, Chaityas, Viharas was foumous and praiseworthy. All these prove the progress of professional and vocational education in ancient India. Mahatma Gandhi initiated such professional and vocational education for gaining self-reliance of the learners.

 Curricular Development in Ancient Indian Education:

Curriculum is an integrated pattern of knowledge, experience and activities necessary for the development of child’s life. “Curriculum is that reconstruction of knowledge and experience, systematically developed, under the auspices of the school to enable the learner to increase his or her control of knowledge and experience.” Curriculum in the early Vedic age was the reflection of Vedic scriptures which were spiritual in nature. Curriculum is the reflection of social needs the curriculum in the early Vedic period was cosmic in nature. They Aryans developed a curriculum consisting of sacrificial hymns compiled in Samhitas-Rik, Sama, yaju, Atharva. Vedangas  also (Siksha, Chanda, jyotish, Nirukta and Kalpa) included in the curriculum. In the later Vedic age subjects like Astronomy, Astrology, Botany, Geometry, Mathematics were further expanded its shape and limits. Sutra literature and Mahavashya of Patanjali were in curriculum. Brahmanic curriculum consisted of Vedas, Vedangas, Brahmana, Upanishadas, and Itihas –purana, Akhyan, Vyakhan, Gatha, Khatra vidya, Brhama vidya, Nidhi, Sutra and various arts and crafts. The curriculum of Buddhist education started with religious scriptures. Tripitakas- Vinoy, Sutta and Dhamma Pitaks were the core of it and Brahmanic curriculum was also accepted in the Buddhist curriculum. Buddhist curriculum consisted of Itihas-Puranas, Lexicography, Prosody, Phonetics, Grammar, Astronomy, and astrology, Medicine, Philosophy and Panini. The basic difference of Buddhist curriculum from Brahmanic is its secular nature. So Buddhist education incorporated secular education. Hindu Philosophy, Fine arts and Grammar Influenced the Buddhist curriculum. Mahatma Gandhi emphasized on child centric and diversified curriculum as prevailed in the ancient system of education.

 Teacher-Pupil Relation in Ancient India:

Mahatma Gandhi believed that Teacher is the creator, preserver of knowledge and destroyer of weeds of ignorance. Salvation, illumination and enlightenment constituted the basic aim of education in ancient India. The ultimate aim of education was self-realization and the proximate aims were the character building, inculcation of good habits, moral values and social duties. Formation of ideal character through proper instruction and training is possible after receiving the direct contact of Rishis in Gurukul. So the residential pupilage came into existence. Mahatma Gandhi gave more emphasis on ideal Student-Teachers relationship and was possible in the Ashramic system of education. Teachers were highly qualified and spiritually well versed. They looked after the comforts of the students and performed parental duties for the all round development of the pupils. Teaching was oral and professional teaching was imparted under personal guidance. Pupil’s practical apprenticeship was under direct contact of the Gurus. Teachers considered his duties as service. They did not receive fees for their noble duties. Teachers were considered guardians to take care of student’s health, habit and conduct.  Teachers had to nurse the students in their ailment and they had immense moral responsibilities. They had to detect the shortcomings of the students and repair the same with brilliance and wisdom. Teachers had the sole responsibility of maintaining institutional activities including admission, expulsion, reward and punishment. Hence teachers held a high esteem in the society. Students respected their teachers from the core of their heart. The pupils had to salute whenever the teachers are met. They had to take lower seat and even never touched the shadow of the teachers. They had to render many Ashramic compulsory services. The relation between teachers and students were cordial and intimate. In Buddhistic education the students had to rise early, prepare and serve their meal, wash bowl and accompany their teachers in begging. Students had to pay their attention to pay reverence, show devotion and respect the Upadhyayas. Teachers always inspired the students to be aloof from immoral and irreligious duties. Thus the direct contact in residential system of Gurukul and Buddhist Sangharam made the relation between teachers and students more intimate, direct and cordial. The decreasing trend of student-teacher relationship today is growing higher for the lack of direct contact of both between student and teachers.

 Management of Education and the Role of society:

The ancient education was the state concern but the teachers were all powerful in determining the curricula and syllabi, admission procedure, methods of teaching, discipline and evaluation. The kings of Kashi-Kosola-Videha and subsequently the monarchs of Mourya, Kusana, Gupta, and Pala dynasty, kings of the Deccan province were the great patron of learning. They granted scholarships, donated land, built the institutions, appointed eminent scholars and overall encouraged the growth of education and culture. The richer sections of the society particularly the business men (sresthis) contributed to spread of education. The poor citizen also helped the Brahmmacharies filling the begging bowl of the Brahmmacharies. The Buddhist Viharas were also maintained by the donation and contribution of the kings and Sresthis. This extensive patronage and donation made the ancient Indian education ‘free’ to reach the poor.

Conclusion: Present education system of India is the evolution of the past heritage and glorious tradition of India. With the development of science and educational technology all aspects and componenets of education have been remarkably changed but a few aspects of ancient education such as value education, moral education, discipline, studet-teachers relationship always deserve praise and have been justified to be followed even today.

Reference:

1.     Banerjee, J. P.(1985) Education In India, Kolkata: Central Library Publication, p.p. 9-10

2.     Aggarwal, J.C.(1996). Teacher and education in a developing Society, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pvt. Ltd.

[1]

3.     Chandra, S.S.(2003). Indian Education Development, Problems, Issues and Trend, Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot

      4 .  Dash,B.N.,&Dash N.(2009).Thoughts and Theories of Indian Educational thinkers. New Delhi: Dominant Publisher and Distributers, P. 130

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[1]Banerjee, J. P.(1985) Education In India, Kolkata: Central Library Publication, p.p. 9-10

[2] Ibid, P.11

[3] Ibid, p.p.13-14

[4] Aggarwal, J.C.(1996). Teacher and education in a developing Society, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pvt. Ltd.

[5] Chandra, S.S.(2003). Indian Education Development, Problems, Issues and Trend, Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot

[6] Dash,B.N.,&Dash N.(2009).Thoughts and Theories of Indian Educational thinkers. New Delhi: Dominant Publisher and Distributers, P. 130