Introduction:
India has a rich heretage. The centre
of education in ancient India attracted scholars from every corner of the
world. Nalanda and Taxila have been the best known of such ancient Universities.But
with the passage of time, these centers were closed because of the hostile
Muslim invadors. In 1600 A.D., East India Company was established in England,
when Akbar was the great Indian monarch and Mughal empire was in its glory. For
more than 150 years, the company was engaged in commercial activities. In 1698,
when charter act was passed in England which required to spread English
education in its garrisions. Education
in that time was meant for the European children and it was in English models
rather than Hindu or Muslim traditions. The Colonial edication was meant to
make a clerical class for their own benefit.
It was started with the advent of Missionary schools.
Early Missionary Activities: The
Early Missionaries provided a link between medieval and modern education. There
were some special characteristics of missionary’s educational enterprise. They
established certain types of institutions. They are Parochial schools,
Orphanages, Secondary schools, Teacher Training schools, Clergymen’s college
etc. Schools were first established in Kuthis for the European children.
Indigenous type of elementary education attracted the attention of the
missionaries. They filled the vacuum in education caused by the decline of
Mughal dynasty. Missionary’s school first broke down educational caste barrier.
The missionaries first introduced the use of press and widespread use of
vernaculars came into existence for mass education. History, Geography and
general science were included in the traditional curriculum. Time table,
gradation in evaluation, school regulations, vocational education and new
cultural elements all these elements were brought by the missionaries. The
missionaries of the 17th and 18th centuries paved the way
for the introduction of western education. [1]
Missionary schools got reorganized
and modern school’s features were noticed. The main aims of these schools were
religious. So teaching of Bible was essential. School time table was followed
and Sunday was a closed day. New curriculum was framed. The world History and
Geography were included in the curriculum. The missionaries had arranged for
publication of printed books. So books were easily available and cost became
low. The Portuguese can be regarded as the founders of modern system of
education in India. They established Jesuit College for higher education and
imparted education in local language. The Dutch extended their commercial
activities at Chinsura and Hooghly and established schools for the education of
the children of Company’s servants. The Indian students were also allowed to
take admission in these schools. The French and the Danes established their
schools and tried to spread education in our country.
Policy of Warren Hastings: The
Company’s Supreme council in India under the leadership of Warren Hastings
adopted a new policy to increase British influence showing patronage to
traditional learning. Hastings adopted a policy of ‘benevolent neutrality’ in
social, religious and cultural affairs. Missionaries were given permission to
spread western education. At the same time revival of traditional Hindu and
Muslim education was also given more emphasis to create competent Hindu and
Muslim Law –interpreters in courts presided over by English Judges. Warren
Hastings established the Calcutta Madrash in 1781 where Islamic Theology, Law,
Logic, Grammar, Arithmetic and Arabic language were taught.
Hindu theology, Law, Grammar, Medicine and
Sanskrit language were taught at Benaras Sanskrit College established by
Jonathan Duncan in 1791 and later at Calcutta Sanskrit College established in
1824. Hastings patronized the translation of members of the society were
Darakanath Tagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Ram Kamal Sen, Kashinath Mallick and other eminent persons of Bengal. H.H.
Wilson, William hunter, James Prinsep and Charles Grant fostered the literary
activities of the society. The valuable collections of manuscripts,
Inscriptions and coins preserved in the society help the researchers to find
out the glorious tradition of the past.[2]
Contribution of Serampur Trio: William
Carey, William Ward and Marshman were called the Serampur Trio. Serampur press
was founded in 1800 A.D. Carey and Marshman established Calcutta Benevolent
Institutions in 1810. The Serampore Trio established more than 20 schools by
1815. Serampur College was established in 1818 where Western arts and sciences
were taught. Serampur Trio immensely contributed towards the growth of Bengali
language and literature and spread western education in Bengal. They contributed
for the development of Bengali Grammar and literary translation. Carey wrote a
Bengali Dictionary containing 85000 words including derivatives and syntax.
Carey and Ram Ram Bose jointly wrote
‘Mangal Samachar” the first Bengali prose literature. This was followed by
‘Itihas Mala’ and ‘Kathopakathan’ the Fort William College was established in
1800 for the training of young officers of the company. Carey was at Fort
William College up to 1831 and served there as a famous teacher. He wrote many books
covering Bengali Grammar, and dictionary, several writings in Oriya, Sanskrit,
Assamese and Panjabi. About Bengali language he wrote, “It may be esteemed as
one of the most expressive and elegant languages of the East.’
Charles Grant Observation: Charles
Grant an officer studied the problems of education in India and wrote his
observation report to the British Parliament about the deplorable condition of
India and suggested to spread education to improve the behavior pattern of the
Indians. English education was needed to catch up with the latest trends in
literature, science, philosophy, religion and other subjects. He suggested
appointing English Teachers first and later they might be replaced by the
Indian Teachers. The British Parliament gradually accepted the suggestions and
implemented the same. In 1813 when the Charter Act was published the
responsibility of the British Govt. to spread education was noticed.
The Charter Act of 1813: The
Charter Act of 1813 was published due to the efforts of Charles grant. So he
was regarded as the father of modern education in India. The Charter Act of
1813 revolutionized the traditional system of education and now it became a
responsibility of the company to spread education. The clause No 43 of the
charter directed the company to spend at least one Lakh rupees on education.
The provision of Charter Act related to educational grant recognized the duty
of the Govt. and a system of educational grant first introduced. Moreover, the
clause opened a new chapter of controversy regarding the type and medium of
instruction. The controversy was between oriental and occidental. The oriental
school led by Mr. Prinsep had derived inspiration from warren Hastings, Minto,
Metcaffe and Wilson and others of Asiatic Society. According to them oriental
culture was no inferior to western culture. Hence the company would spend the
sanctioned rupees for the development of oriental learning through the oriental
classical languages.
Occidental School called the oriental
literature worthless and full of superstition. So the opined that western
knowledge should be directly introduced through the medium of English and the
natives would be taught Western science. They wanted to produce Govt. employees
at reasonable cost would best be possible through English education through
English language. The Orientalist and Occidentalist group of G.C.P.I.
established in 1823 could not have uniformity in executing the educational
activities.
Macaulay Minute:
Lord Macaulay was
appointed the Law Member of the council of Governor General in 1834 when the
controversy between the Orientalist and Occidentalist had become more violent.
He was appointed the Chairman of the General committee of Public Instructions
of Bengal by Lord William Bentick who gave him to solve the controversy. He
advocated western education through the medium of English. He proposed to stop
the grants of Oriental Institutions and save the unnecessary expenditure. He
wanted to utilize the grant of one lakh properly in opening English schools and
developing the Western system of education in India. Macaulay made a declaration stating that the British
Government’s main aim to spread European literature and science among Indians and the money granted will be spent for that
purpose. He also stated that Oriental literature will not be published in
future.
Resolution of Lord William
Bentick: Lord William Bentick accepted the
proposal of Lord Macaulay and took a resolution declared first by the British
Govt. in 1835. It was stated in the resolution that the main object of the
British Govt. ought to be the promotion of European literature and science
among the natives of India. Promotion of Western sciences and arts was
acknowledged as the avowed object.
William Bentinck passed the following
orders in resolution:
First: His Lordship-in-Council is of
the opinion that the great object of the British Government ought to be the
promotion of European literature and science among the natives of India; and
that all the funds appropriated for the purpose of education would be best
employed on English education alone.
Second: His Lordship-in –Council directs
that all the funds which these reforms will leave at disposal of the committee
be henceforth employed in imparting to the native population a knowledge of
English literature and science through the medium of English language; and his
Lordship-in –Council requests the committee to submit to Government with all
expedition, a plan for the accomplishment of this purpose.[3]
The Wood’s Despatch (1854): In
1854 the chairman of the Board of control was sir Charles wood. So the
declaration of education policy of the company was named as ‘Wood’s Despatch’.
The main recommendations of the dispatch are as follows:
1. The dispatch clearly accepted the
responsibility of the British Government for education in India.
2. The main aim of education policy was
to raise intellectual fitness and moral character of the educands.
3. Wood recognized the usefulness of
oriental literature like Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian
4. The Despatch pointed out the
importance of English as the medium of instruction.
5. The Despatch recommended for the establishment
of the Department of Public instruction. Its highest official should be
designated as the Director of Public Instruction assisted by Deputy Director,
Inspectors and Deputy Inspectors of schools.
6. The Despatch suggested for the
setting up of the universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and if necessary
at other places. There were other recommendations also.
In 1859 Lord Stanley supported the
Despatch of 1854. Due to Stanley’s Despatch, the provincial Governments were
made responsible for primary education. By 1871, the department of education
came under the direct control of provincial Governments. During the regime of
Lord Mayo the Provincial Governments
were authorized to make expenditure on education for its development.[4]
The Provincial Governments were empowered during reign of Lord Lyton. All these
developments reflected in the report of Hunter commission.
Hunter commission:
Lord Ripon wanted to assess the
development and to remove the defects of education in India. He appointed The
Indian Education commission in India on February 3, 1982 under the Chairmanship
of William Hunter.
The Aims and Objectives of the Commission:
1. To assess the position of Primary
education and to suggest for its reforms
2. To evaluate the contribution of the
Missionaries in the field of education.
3. To find out the position of the
Government Institutions and whether it should be allowed to continue.
4. To assess the utility of Grant- in-
aid system and to find out whether the private enterprise needs to receive
encouragement from the Government.
5. To study the problems of education
and to suggest the remedies for its improvement.
Although the commission worked very hard for full ten
months and collected more than 300 suggestions from people of our country, it
could not give any new ideas of reform. The standard of education fell down due
to paucity of funds. Bookish knowledge was overemphasized. The sole purpose of
education of students was to pass the examination. They were not given
practical experiences useful to their real life situation. Nothing useful to
practical life was taught in the existed system. Indians were not aware of the
situation.
Shimla Education Conference
(1901): Lord Curzon convened a conference at
Shimla for initiating reforms of Indian education. Various aspects of Primary, secondary and
Higher education were covered for discussion in the conference and the
following policies were declared.
1.
British
Government will control the system of education
2.
Public
Institutions will be established as the model institution of private
institutions.
3.
The
central Govt. will conduct and control over Indian education particularly
University education.
4.
Qualitative
development of education was given more emphasis.
5.
The
Government will spend more funds for the development of education.
In shimla conference Indian representatives were not
allowed and the Government wanted to change the system to abolish the national
feelings and national sentiment.
Indian University Commission
(1902): Lord Curzon appointed Indian
University Commission to make university education qualitatively expanded. The
commission aimed at laying down the procedures by which the standard of higher
education may go up. It suggested ways and means for the organization and
working of Indian university. The Senate and Syndicate are suggested to be
reorganized. Managing Committee was formed in every college. Suitable
recommendations were made to change the curriculum of higher education. On the
basis of the suggestion of Indian University Commission Lord Curzon decided to
frame a new educational policy and Indian University Act was passed on March
11, 1904. The Act highlighted that the courses are absolutely bookish and
students try to pass the examination by cramming the material. Industrial and
technological education is neglected.
Gokhale’s Bill 1911:
Gokhale Bill was introduced on March 16, 1911 in the
Legislative Assembly. The object of the bill was to provide free and compulsory
elementary education in the country. The main suggestion of the bill was that
the Primary education should be made compulsory for the boys and girls of the
age groups of 6 to 10. The defaulting guardians should be penalized for
non-compliance of the provisions of sending their wards to recognized primary
schools. Now the RTE of 2009 clarified the right of the children of the age
group of 6 to 14 a fundamental right of free and compulsory education in 21 -A
and guardian’s compulsion was stated in 51-A as the fundamental duties to
arrange education of their wards.
Sadler Commission 1917-19: The Commission under the Chairmanship of Sir M.E. Sadler of
1917-1919 drew attention to the following defects of Secondary education:
1. The secondary schools are suffering
from lack of useful educational tools and equipments.
2. Secondary education had become over influenced
by Public examination
3. The quality of secondary education
has fallen down to a deplorable degree.
4. The secondary schools are not visited
and inspected regularly. So suggestions for its improvement were not received.
5. Suitable subjects for intermediate
classes are not included in the curriculum of secondary education. The
commission suggested that secondary education at the time neither prepared
students for University education nor did it create self-dependence in youths.
So the secondary education should be put on the right track for showing a
desirable direction to University.
Hartog Report of 1928: The Simon Commission appointed a sub-Committee with Sir
Philip Hartog as the Chairman to enquire into the growth of education in
British India and potentialities of progress. The committee was not satisfied
with the progress of secondary education as much attention was paid to higher
education in between 1882-1922. The Committee found that out of every 100
students in class 1 only 19 pupils read in class IV in 1925-26. The committee
pointed out about the ‘Wastage and stagnation’. It suggested for the introduction
of varied curricula in the middle schools and provision for alternative courses
particularly for industrial and commercial carreers.
Wood –Abbott Report of 1937:
Abbott report suggested for the development of educational provision of
girls and women. The main recommendations are:
1. Infant classes should be entrusted to
trained teachers and women education should be given paramount importance
2. The education of children of primary
schools should be based upon the interest of the children. Concentration on
narrow bookish leaning should not be entertained.
3. The curriculum in the middle classes
should be closely related to the interest of the children.
4. The medium of instruction will be the
mother tongue and English will be a compulsory second language.
5. Attention to be paid for teaching
fine arts and qualified trained teachers to be appointed.
6. The pre-service education course of teachers
for primary and middle schools should be of three years without any gap.
7. Vocational education will be continued
parallel with the general education
8. The Government should establish a
vocational training college working in close association with an ordinary
training college.
Wardha Scheme of 1937: Gandhi
initiated experimentation on education both in India and in Africa and formulated
his valuable thought. He finalized and adopted a scheme of education which was
published in the columns of ‘Harijan’ in the year of 1937. The scheme containing the main features was
placed in the All India National Education Conference on the 22nd
and 3rd October, 1937. Mahatma Gandhi himself presided over the
meeting of the conference. Education Ministers of seven provinces attended the
conference. The scheme was popularly known as the Wardha scheme or ‘Basic
education scheme’ A committee was unanimously formed in the conference and
appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain to prepare a detailed
syllabus of this scheme of education. The committee submitted its report
containing detailed syllabus and other suggestions. A new scheme of education
for the development of body, mind and soul was developed giving emphasis on the
development of 3Hs-Head, Hand and Heart. Suggestions were covered on
Supervision, Examination system, teacher’s training. Gandhi again submitted his scheme covering Pre-basic,
Basic, and Post Basic education and adult education in Sevagram conference in
1945. He suggested pre-basic education for the children less than six years of
age, basic education for the age group of six years to fourteen years and post
basic education was for the students of fourteen to eighteen years. University
education will aim at national and social needs. Community improvement was
given priority on adult education.
Basic education was
signified by the term ‘Basic’ because it will make the bases of life. The
scheme intimately related with the basic needs of the children. It gave
emphasis on the drawing out of the best potentialities in child and man. It had
given emphasis on the ancient tradition and culture of our country. The scheme
was meant for the common standard of education for the common people
irrespective of colour, caste, creed and religion.
Ministry of education,
Government of India, stated in a pamphlet, “ This basic education, is not only
a valuable and integral part of the priceless legacy that Mahatma Gandhi left
the nation, but embodies certain educational ideas and principles of great
significance that have been welcomed and endorsed by distinguished and
discerning educationists in India and abroad.”[5]
The special feature which drew the attention of the people was the basic
education advocated free, compulsory and universal education to the students of
age group of 7 to 14 years which was reflected later in Article 45.
Sargent Report of 1944: Sir John Sargent, the then Educational
Adviser to the Government of India was asked to prepare a memorandum on post
war educational development in India and the report published was entitled by
the C.A.B.E.as “Post war Educational Development in India. The report aimed at
different points to attain the educational standard of contemporary England
with in a period of 4o years. It provides for:[6]
1. A reasonable provision of pre-primary
education for children between 3 and 6 years of age in nursery schools.
2. Universal, compulsory and free
primary or basic education for all children between the ages of 6 and 14
divided in junior basic (6-11) and Senior Basic (11-14).
3. Secondary or high school education
for six years for selected children in the age group of 11-17
4. Two types of schools-Academic High
School providing instruction in Arts and Science and Technical High Schools
specializing in applied sciences industrial and commercial subjects.
5. University education including three
years degree course and one year intermediate course to be transferred to High
schools
6. Technical, commercial and Art
Education and four types of institutions-
a) Junior Technical or Industrial
Institution or Trade school with a two year course after the senior Basic stage
b) Technical or Industrial Institution
or Trade School with a two year course after the Junior Basic stage
c) Technical High school with a six
years course after the Junior Basic stage
d) Senior Technical Institution and University technological departments
e) Adult education both vocational and
non-vocational for nine crore illiterates
f) Full provisions for the training of
teachers for pre-primary, Junior Basic and Senior Basic schools
g) Special schools for children
suffering from mental and physical handicaps
h) A proper educational administrative
system with a stern Education Department at the center.[7]
Reference:
1. Banerjee,
J. P.(1985) Education In India, Kolkata: Central Library Publication, p.p. 9-10
2. Aggarwal,
J.C. (1996) Teacher and education in a developing Society, New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House, pvt. Ltd.
3. Chandra,
S.S. (2003). Indian Education
Development, Problems, Issues and Trend, Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
4. Rawat,
P. L. (1981). History of Indian
Education, Agra: Ramprasad and sons.
5. Mukherji,
S. N.(1974).History of Education in India, Boroda: Achariya book Publication
6. Rai.
Garg. (1977).Indian Educatio Review and Preview, Ambala Cantt, The Associated
Publishers
[2]Banerjee,
J. P.(1985) Education In India, Kolkata: Central Library Publication, p.p. 9-10
[3]
Aggarwal, J.C. (1996) Teacher and education in a developing Society, New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House, pvt. Ltd.
[4]
Chandra, S.S. (2003). Indian Education
Development, Problems, Issues and Trend, Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
[5]
Dash, B.N. and Dash Nibedita.(2009).Thoughts
and Theories of Indian Educational thinkers, New Delhi: Dominant Publisher
and Distributers, p. 130.
[7]
Chandra, S.S. (2003) Indian Education Development, Problems, Issues and Trend,
Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot
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