Gandhian Views Reshaping Education and Society Dr. Goutam Patra Asst. Professor, Inst. of education for women Hastins House, Kol-27
Gandhian Views
Reshaping Education
and Society
Gandhian Views
Reshaping Education
and Society
ABS BOOKS
Delhi-110086
Dr. Goutam Patra
Assistant Professor
W.B.E.S Govt. College of Education
Banipur North 24 paraganas, W.B
ISBN : 978-81-951369-4-0
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Edition January 2021
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Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
By : Dr. Goutam Patra
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Acknowledgement
The writer expresses his deep sense of gratitude and
appreciation to the proprietor, Manager and Staff of ABS
publiçation for their valuable guidance, cooperation, sincere
supervision, suggestions, encouragement to publish the book. The
work could not be published without their active cooperation.
I would like to appreciate the advice of my beloved colleagues Dr.
Subhas Chandra Bhat and Dr. Ujjwal Paul and other Colleagues
and staff of our college.
I also do not forget to express my heartfelt, love, gratitude and
respect to my beloved wife Smt. Basanti Patra, love to my daughters
Payel Patra and Poulami Patra for their constant inspiration and
motivation.
Last but not least I also pay my homage to my father Late Bishnu
pada Patra and sincere regards to my mother Smt. Saraswati
Patra for their inspirational thoughts behind this publiçation.
Dr. Goutam Patra
Preface
In this book, it is narrated intensively the role of Mahatma
Gandhi for laying a strong foundation of both theory and practice
of our National system of education. Gandhi considered it essential
for the awakening of the nation, global awareness and exploration
of inner consciousness of mind. Gandhi thought that education as an
unending preparation of service towards mankind in course of selfrealization,
self-exploration, self- enrichment and self-evaluation.
Though the aspects of his various contributions to Indian education,
society and culture have been touched upon by scholars and historians,
to the best of my knowledge there has been no intensive exploration
of ideas on the implication of his Educational thought on the
Secondary Education, social reconstruction , National development
and on International outlook. I hope that this modest work will fill
in the long standing gap. It is expected that these purposeful and
sincere attempts will be judged by the learned experts.
Contents
Introduction
Social and Cultural Progress Through Education
Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi on Various Aspects of
Secondary Ducation
Relevance of Value Education on Gandhian Line
Gandhian Education Communal Harmony, Social and
Religious Development
Women Education and Gandhi’s Views
Self-Purification, Self-Respect and ‘Sarvodaya Philosophy’
on Gandhian View Points
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India
Global Views on Education
Social, Political, Economic and Cultural Issues
Religious and Cultural Issues and Gandhian Thought
National Policy and Gandhian Views on Education
Gandhian Educational Views on Sustainable Development
Different Issues and Gandhian Thoughts
Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Acknowledgement
Preface
1
4
10
20
25
35
39
46
96
98
105
109
115
119
123
v
vii
Social Philosophy and Education for Untouchables
Humanistic Approach to Education
Women Education
Spiritualization in Education
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary Education in the
21St Century
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
137
142
150
153
160
Introduction
1. Introduction Mahatma Gandhi, a great philosopher in the world
contributed his views on education from a practical
point of view and showed a new dimension of education
related to the realities of national life and aspirations of common
people. Gandhi’s achievements in the domain of politics and social
reforms have been spectacular but his magnificent contribution to
the theory and practice of education has not received much attention
as it deserves. The value of physical, moral and spiritual development
was given equal emphasis in his philosophy of education for all round
development of pupil and for the development of nation as well.
Mahatma Gandhi first rejected the colonial system of education
and introduced his planning of Basic education. He wanted education
to be reconstructed along the lines he thought correct to help India
to move away from the Western concept of progress, towards a
different form of development more suited to its needs than the
Western model of development. In 1937 he launched his new scheme
of education. This new scheme came to be known as Nai Talim or
‘Basic Education.’ It is called ‘Basic Education’ because the scheme
of education makes the bases of life. ‘Nai Talim’ is a new system
of education which is based on training. It is related to education
to be given to a child of the age group 7 to 14 years and after the
1.
2 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
14th year respectively. The new system of education divided into
three stages Pre-Basic, Basic and Post-Basic education. Gandhiji’s
ideas in regard to this New Education were the outcome of long
years of sustained thought and experience to reject the prevailing
colonial system of education. He sought various ways to substitute
the colonial system by educational practices considered to be more
practical rather than theoretical. Gandhi wanted to make the child
to be more practical rather than depending upon the accumulation
of bookish knowledge. He emphasized on the development of
3Hs (Head, Heart and Hand) instead of 3Rs (Reading, Writing
and Arithmetic). He introduced productive handicrafts in school
curriculum and made the learning possible through a productive
craft placing it in the center of Teaching-learning process. Craft was
the centre part of the entire teaching programme. It was a radical
change in reconstructing of school knowledge in India. Knowledge
of the production process involving in a craft in the centre of entire
school curriculum, such as spinning, weaving, pottery, metal work,
basket making ,book binding had been the monopoly of specific caste
group in the lowest stratum of the traditional social hierarchy in
India. Many of them belonged to the category of untouchables. In the
colonial system of education literacy and acquisition of knowledge
had a monopoly of the upper castes. So they had achieved social
dignity and economic stability. Gadhi’s proposal of basic education
favoured the child belonging to the lowest stratum of society and
changed the established structure of opportunities for education.
He envisaged education as ‘the spearhead of a social revolution’
which would enable life to move forward towards peace, justice
and co-operation.1 Thus the programme of Basic education was a
programme to change the established structure of opportunities for
education.
Mahatma Gandhi wanted to make the school to be self-supported.
He valued self-sufficiency and autonomy. The idea of swaraj and
swadeshi were related to the new education system. The vision of his
education system was an independent India made up of autonomous
self sufficient -village communities. Making of ideal citizens being
industrious, self- reliant and co-operative was the main objectives
of education. The Basic education was the conception of learning
related to social, economic, political, cultural, moral and aesthetic
1. Wasey, A. & Ehsas, F. (Ed.). (2008). Education Gandhi and Man. Select writings
Khwaja Ghulamus Saiyyadain. Shakarpur, Delhi: Shipra Publications, P.12.
Introduction 3
aspects of life. It leads to solve the problems of human life particularly
the value related crises in everyday life. It was also an education
focused on the individual but reliant on cooperation between
individuals and communities. This cultivates the right attitude
towards a new learning atmosphere based on the spirit of friendship
creating a social awakening in life. The concept of Basic education
was supposed to bring all round development of the learners at
the secondary level. It is suggested that the Board of Secondary
Education needs to develop an educational process on Gandhian line
at secondary level introducing activity based curriculum to bring all
round development of the learners particularly their life skills and
environmental consciousness towards sustainable development.
“Power is of two kinds. One is obtained by the fear of punishment and the
other by acts of love. Power based on love is a thousand times more effective
and permanent then the one derived from fear of punishment.”
Social and Cultural
Progress Through Education
Education is a powerful force in bringing rapid changes in the
Society. Many scholars have stressed on its fundamental role and
unique significance for national development. Education includes
all the process that develops human ability and behaviour (UNESCO).
Human beings have two important aspects-Biological and Sociological.
The Biological aspect is maintained and transmitted by nutrition and
reproduction. The Sociological aspect is improved and transmitted through
a powerful means of education. So conceptualization and development of
education as a product has more importance than the others.
“If you want real peace in the world,
start with children.”
2.
Social and Cultural Progress Through Education 5
India is a famous country that has the right to take pride in an
ancient and age old educational system. India’s glorious culture
presents to mankind the history of several races invaded India
and mixed in the human ocean of India. F. W. Thomas one of the
distinguished Ideologists writes, “There is no country where the
love of learning so early an origin or has exercised so lasting and
powerful an influence.” The ideal of Hindu education was culture
and not literacy. The system of Indian education is the development
of ‘self’ and to realize the supreme ‘self’ to liberate mind and to lead
the highest possible life. The pivotal sources of ancient education
were the Vedas. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads were
the granaries of the ancient rich culture and heritage. Mukherjee
(1974) said, ‘Since the birth of the oldest Vedic poetry, we find Indian
literature for a period of more than a thousand years bearing an
exclusively religious impression’ Altekar (1982) has rightly remarks,
‘the knowledge is a third eye of man which gives him insight into all
affairs…’ The education of ancient India was exclusively religious in
nature during the early and later Vedic period. Realization of true
knowledge was the main aim towards the achievement of absolute
or Brahma. Education during the Buddhist period was basically
religious in nature and based on practicable principles, high ideals
and non-violence. The prominent factor of education in medieval
times was its Islamic character and was the propagation of Islam
in India. Development of morality, propagation Shariyat, character
building and achievement of material well being are the aims and
objectives of Islamic education. Education during the British period
was designed for the sake of colonial interest. A number of schools
were established and mass education was developed. Modern science
and technology occupies a prominent place in place of religious
education in the twentieth century.
Ancient Indian civilization was famous for its glorious education
and cultural tradition in the world. All that is India today is the gift
of its cultural and social heritage of the last 5000 years.2 Among all
ancient texts the Vedas occupy the first place to provide knowledge
about the ancient Indian education and society. The Vedic period
marked the beginning of progress of ancient Indian culture, literature
and science. Altekar (1982) stated that the Aryan period could be
regarded as the peaceful, mature and practical age of education. To
2. Nehru, J. (2001). The Discovery of India. New Delhi: Oxford University press,
6 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
him, “From the Vedic age downwards the central concept of education
of the Indians has been that it is a source of illumination, giving us
a correct lead in the various spheres of life”.3
Mukherji (1974) mentioned that the religious sphere of ancient
Indian education helped the society to develop morally than
materialistic development. He categorically mentioned that ‘since
the birth of the oldest Vedic poetry, we find Indian literature for
a period of more than a thousand years bearing an exclusively
religious impression; it would propagate the principles of religion
unconsciously.’ This was the essence of literature during the Vedic
period. Education was based on religious essence but modeled to
suit materialistic life. Ancient Indian education did not neglect
materialist knowledge or worldly knowledge.4
“Hate the sin, love the sinner.”
Murthty (1982) mentioned that since long education has been
given a very important place in Human Resource Development.
During the time of Vedic education this development occurred in
a different manner what we see at present. Formation of character
was given emphasis by the proper development of the moral feeling
and spiritual training. Religious and moral education was imparted
for developing personality inculcating the virtue of self-restraint and
fostering the powers of discrimination and judgment.5
3. Altekar, A. S. (1982). Education in Ancient India (II Ed.),
4. Mukherji, S.N. (1974). History of Education in India. Baroda: Acharya Book Depot.
5. Murthy, S. K. (1982). Contemporary Problems and Current Trends in Education.
Ludhiana: Prakash Brother Educational Publishers.
Social and Cultural Progress Through Education 7
In the Rig Vedic period women were learned and they were called
as ‘Brhamabadini’in the later Vedic period to some extent they had
lost their respect and scope of education.
Biswas and Aggarwal (1986) have shown that during the initial
stage of Buddhist education, much encouragement was given to
women education and separate monastic schools were established
for this purpose.
We find examples of renowned social reformers in this period.
Women religious missionaries used to go to foreign countries in
order to propagate the Buddhist religion.6
The year 712 A.D. marked the event of Mohammedan invasion
in India. The history of Muslim education has been the history of a
system of Govt. and a social system over 700 years. Rawat (1986)
showed that the medieval period is filled with political and military
disturbances and upheavals; still we find that a system of education
did evolve, mainly for the propagation of Islamic religion. During the
Medieval period Hindu and Islamic systems of education influenced
each other to a great extent and integration of both cultures was
noticed.7 Islamic education has some special characteristics
noteworthy to be mentioned. Law (1961) mentioned the procedure
of learning of the learners. “The boys were first taught the Persian
Alphabet along with accents and marks of punctuation. As soon as
this was mastered, which did not take more than two days; they were
taught the combinations of letters. After a week, they had to read
short lines of prose or verse containing religious or moral sentiment,
in which those combinations frequently occurred.” (P.161)8
Modern education system developed during the British period.
Colonial system of education was for the sake of the interest of the
British rulers. But with the development of modern education based
on science and technology Indian nationalism grows against the
British exploitation. To Mahatma Gandhi service to humanity was
the highest goal to be achieved. The development of education though
limited within the class of elites, the concept of nationality achieved.
During the Swadeshi movement national education developed.
6. Biswas, A., & Aggarwal, S. P. (1986). Develop of Education in India. New Delhi:
Concept Publishing Company.
7. Rawat, P.L. (1986). History of Indian Education, Bhopal: Ramaprasad and sons.
8. Law, N.N. (1961). Promotion of learning in India during the Muhammadan rule.
London: Longmans, Green& Co. P.161.
8 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Gandhi’s concept of Education developed the ancient Indian concept
of Basudhaiba Kutumbakam-the whole world as one family.
During the British period women education was not developed to
the mark of expectation. Proper development of the nation depends
on the development of education of women of a nation. Gandhiji
on women education says, “Man and women are of equal rank, but
they are not identical. They are a peerless pair being supplementary
to one another, each helps the other, so that without the one the
existence of the other cannot be conceived, and therefore, it follows
a necessary corollary from these facts that anything that will impair
the status of either of them will involve the equal ruin of them both.”9
Education develops national consciousness among the masses.
Hardiman (2003) describes Gandhian concept of Nationalism as
‘incorporative nationalism’ which does not exclude any sect, race,
class or caste. So Gandhi’s idea of a nation is much different from the
concept of Rastra of VD Savarkar or Jinnah.10
Education is a powerful weapon to bring nationalism. Gandhiji
moulded the shape of education for the development of nation. His
achievement in the field of national movement was realized when
professor Jacob Worm-Muller, the advisor to the Nobel Committee,
objected his nomination for Nobel prize in 1937 because Gandhi was
a nationalist as his fight for Indians only. His nomination after death
for the fourth time was dropped as he had no heir.11
In a recent study Anthony (2006) has given a new name to
Gandhi’s idea of nationalism- as‘civic nationalism’. He gave emphasis
on Purushartha (kama, artha, dharma and moksha) through his
educational philosophy. His educational philosophy had a strong
moral and ethical foundation. His thought reflects national as well
as international outlook.12
Modern civilization emerges with the development of education.
Gandhiji had articulated a civilizational alternative rejecting
9. Dr. Pani, S.R.(?). Education Ideas and Ideals of Gandhi & Tagore. p.103.
10. Hardeman, David. (2003). Gandhi in His Times and Ours. New Delhi, Permanent
Black, p. 1.
11. Tennyson, O. (1999). Mahatma Gandhi, the Misinreateg Laureate,’ Nobel e-museum
peace Editor.
12. Anthony J. P. (2006). Gandhi’s Philosophy and Quest for Harmony. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press,
Social and Cultural Progress Through Education 9
modern concept of modern progress. The destruction of environment
in the name of progress caused serious concern. The destruction of
environment came out by the publication of Rachel Carson’s book
‘Silent Spring’ 13
www
13. Rachel Carson’s book ‘Silent Spring’ published in 1962. This book was a land mark
in bringing about global awareness on environmental issues.
Thoughts of Mahatma
Gandhi on Various Aspects
of Secondary Ducation
Mahatma Gandhi propounded his educational thought
after long experimentation on education. As an eminent
Philosopher he advocated his educational thought on
the synthesis of three important philosophies –Idealism, Naturalism
and pragmatism. Gandhi’s educational philosophy opens a new
dimension in the field of educational research. Patel calls Gandhi’s
“educational philosophy as naturalistic in setting, idealistic in aims
and pragmatic in method.” Pani R. S. also stated his views in the
same aspects. Mahatma Gandhi himself defined education and said.
‘By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child
and man—body, mind and spirit.’14 Singh (2009) defined the meaning
and aims of education quoting Gandhi’s speech and Interviews
published in News Papers, books and personal letters and journals
in the following ways.
™™Mere literacy is not true education. So the main function of the
teachers is not to teach the alphabet but to inculcate humanity15
3.
14. Constructive programme, (1961), p. 18 cited in Singh, Y.K.(2009).Educational
Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi, APH Publishing Corporation.
15. Indian Opinion, 18 may 107 (CW6, p. 484-85) (Translated from Gujrati), Publications
Division, Government of India, New Delhi,1954.
Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi on Various... 11
™™Education does not mean the knowledge of letters but it means
character building and knowledge of duty.16
™™True education lies in serving others and carrying out fundamental
of ethics through education is our duty.17
™™True education enables us to preserve our Dharma that is
liberation of mind and overcoming fear.18
™™Education which does not teach us to follow truth and to cultivate
devotion for the country has no value.19
™™A proper harmonious development of body, mind and soul is the
true economics of education.20
™™Nayee Talim is the new scheme of basic education for the sake of
the creation of a new world.21
™™The aim of true education is to attain self realization. Education
is not for mere employment as it cannot secure the employment
of atman .The aim of education is the building up of character.
Knowledge is the means and character building is the end.22
The true aim of education is spiritual development through
which one should lead a life of self-control. The meaning, aim and
features of Nai talim-a new scheme of Basic Education as narrated
in the book is related to the area of research to realize the values of
cotemporary education of our country during the British rule and
present aims and objectives of Secondary Education of our state. The
work of Dr. Sing will help to realize the recent trend of value related
crises in every aspect prevailing day by day disrupting the ideal social
and economic order. Singh has shown that Gandhi’s experiment on
education in India covers all the components of education meaning,
16. Letter to Manilal Gandhi, 25 March, 1909, (CW9, P.208), Publications Division,
Government of India, New Delhi, 1954.
17. Letter to Ramdas Gandhi (The Making of the Mahatma, p.97), cited in Singh,
Y.K.(2009).Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi,APH Publishing
Corporation.
18. Speech to students, Ahmedabad, 18 November, 1926 (CW18, p.471), Publications
Division, Government of India, New Delhi, 1954.
19. Speech at students’ meeting, Agra , 23 November, 1920 (CW19, p.16), Ibid.
20. Ibid
21. Harijan, 19 january 1997, P. 494, cited in Singh, Y.K.(2009).Educational Philosophy
of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi,APH Publishing Corporation.
22. Navajiban, 20 October 1921(CW 21, P.327), Publications Division, Government of
India, New Delhi, 1954.
12 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
aim, objectives, teacher, student, discipline, curriculum, Methods of
teaching, female education and mode of evaluation which will help
to establish the truth of the research area.
Mohit Chakrabarti in his book Gandhian Humanism narrates the
view points of Mahatma Gandhi on education for the development
of humanism. Humanism is the real identity of man. It is the inner
awakening of human consciousness and dedication to the welfare
of mankind. It makes an introspective approach to Gandhian
viewpoints on education as a purified process of self enrichment to
forge ahead in the quest for true humanism. With the advancement
of science and technology man has reached today at the zenith
of Flourish and Perish. Man has been dominated by manmade
machines. Human imagination is ruthlessly toyed with automation,
super computerization and mega machines. Society a composite
mixture of nuclear families has become robotized. Development of
3Hs-Head, Heart and Hands through education-the real essence of
humanism has lost its importance. Gandhi the harbinger of true
humanism goes deeper into the problems of human consciousness
in evolving a new concept of humanism through Work, Love, Truth,
Non-violence, Religion of the welfare of mankind and humanity for
global awareness and global welfare (Sarvodaya).
The principle of equality is one of the fundamental aspects of
Humanism. Self-dependence through the use of spinning wheel
(Charkha) accelerates true humanism. Self-purification is a great
humanistic force is the end to reach the farthest limit of humility.
Self- purification the observance of the law of ‘Ahimsha’ being
highly infectious leads to the purification of one’s surroundings.23
Ideal humanism is soaked in the stream of love, affection, faith and
empathy.
Gandhian Humanism is the reflection of ‘Basudhaibva
Kutumbakam’ lies in endearing all irrespective of caste, creed,
colour, community, race and religion. Self less serving to humanity
is the serving to God. In the ocean of lives life is where there is
love, life without love is death.24 The quality of detachment, purity
of thought and heart, loving sacrifice of one’s little self interest are
the strategies of Gandhian humanism. Right type of education on
23. Gandhi, M.K. (1959). An Autobiogrhy. Navajiban Publshing House, Ahmedabad-14,
PP. 370-371.
24. Prabhu, R.K., & Rai, U.R. (1945). The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi. (compiled),
London: Oxford University Press, P.71.
Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi on Various... 13
the Gandhian view points is the source of global humanism and
welfare of the humanity. Gandhian humanistic approach, the source
of human values, could be the guiding principle to impart right type
of education (Sa vidya ya vimuktya) to our future generation for
saving mankind from the onslaught of global terrorism, violence and
erosion of values of life.
Education Gandhi and man was edited by Akhtarul Wasey
and Farhat Ehsas. In this book some selected writings of Khwaja
Ghulamus Saiyyadain are related to the Research Area. Human
civilization is on brink of several crises and Progress. Tremendous
progress has been made in the field of Science and Technology.
The work of Social and Economic reconstruction has reached to a
Zenith of considerable pitch. But all social, Political and economic
reconstruction involves many complicated problems of high intense.
The development of Science and Technology and rapid growth of
populations have given a new dimension of problems.25 The task of
education is not merely turning out first- rate scientists, Engineers,
Technicians and Doctors but making good human being with the
help of planning to impart proper education creating both technical
efficiency and human efficiency. Robots can never take the place of
human beings having the quality of truth, beauty and goodness. A
scientist or Engineer or Doctor who can manipulate his machines
or apparatus and conduct his experiments successfully but becomes
an unsuccessful poor human being if he fails to understand and
empathize his fellow workers and fellow men associated with him.26
It is education which makes a man responsive to decent emotion
and structure of character and personality. Neglecting the value
based education we are simply trying to make the wall of civilization
on the base of sands. Human civilization will fall like a house of
cards if our education fails to advocate and to cherish practical
efficiency and high technical skill, appreciation to dignity of labour,
clarity of mind, community interests, and loyalties to fellow citizen,
compassion and tolerance. The increasing trend of materialization,
Commercialization and cosumerization perils the base of an ideal
society which is a great concern today.27 Gandhi wanted to reconstruct
25. Wasey, A., & Ehsas F. (eds.).(2008). Education, Gandhi and Man. Delhi: Shipra
Publication, p.3.
26.27 Ibid, p.5.
27. Wasey, A., Ehsas, F.(eds.). (2008). Education, Gandhi and Man. Delhi: Shipra
Publication, p.19
14 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
society on the stands of synthesis of cultures of all lands and society
based on non-violence, peace, justice and freedom. Gandhi believed
in God and to him Truth is God. There is no way of finding truth
except the way of serving humanity and cherishing Non-violence
within. It is possible through secular type of education.
Sinha G.K. in his book Gandhian Thought in the 21st Century
shows that In the twenty first century rapid progress in the field
of science and Technology has given unlimited power to man. This
has made a conviction in man that he can be happy by adopting
materialistic attitude. This attitude has made man power hanger.
The world today is in the midst of several deep rooted crises.
Multidimensional crises like Nerve war, Intellectual confusions,
mass unemployment, poverty, Environmental Pollution have made
the world to face a new challenge.
How human being will exist on this planet is a new question today.
Gandhian view points on education and his ideology of awakening a
sense of spirituality will provide salvage to the challenges in the 21st
century. Education on Gandhian line is the true way of life which
suggests that man should be free from tension, violence, hatred,
frustration, ecological crises. Gandhi’s new concept of satyagraha
conceived as a new technique of Non-violence serves the need of
brotherhood and harmony in the society in the midst of terrorism,
communalism, groupisim, regionalism, linguistic conflict.
In his book The social Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi Sinha
(2002) shows that Gandhi’s ideology has a rational philosophical
validity for the reconstruction of society and economy of a country.
According to Mahatma Gandhi ‘man is the epitome of the universe’.
Human nature may be called the state of transition from the animal
into the divine. Animal nature gives priority to self attachment, desire
for sense pleasure and enjoyment and clinging to earthly life. But
every human being possesses the divine image and blessed qualities
within. The Vedanta teaches that all human being are the image of
God. The Upanishadas proclaim that spirituality is the prerogative
of man and condemn man’s pursuit of worldly wealth and power.
Education is the only weapon that makes a man more divine and
spiritual and gives privileges to overcome all adverse circumstances.
Self realization is possible if the if values are generated through
moral and spiritual education. Gandhiji gave importance on the selfpurification
to make a balanced blend between right thought and
right action. Perception, observation and contemplation of truth are
Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi on Various... 15
the way of realisation of the totality of reality. The essence of spiritual
humanism of Gandhiji signifies the universal values in man. So the
highest service to man will be our sincere Endeavour for drawing out
the divine nature in man through right type of education. Gandhian
constructive work aims at removing disparity at social, political,
economic and spiritual level. He gave emphasis on reshaping
education at grass root levels for bringing movement in constructive
work. Gandhiji believes in absolute oneness of humanity and it is
possible through self-realization and if ‘Sarvodaya’ is materialized.
Jolly (2006) edited the book Reading Gandhi comprising of
many essays as ‘Hind Swaraj’ and ‘Sarvodaya Philosophy’ of Anil
Datta mishra, ‘The Critque of modernity with Special reference to
Bhiku parekh of Jainarain Sharma, ‘An alternative Modernity with
reference to hardiman’ of R. P. Mishra, ‘Gandhi and Women’ of S.
K. Jolly, ‘Gandhi’s View of Swaraj’ of Ashu Pasricha, ‘Relevance of
Gandhism’ of Jita Mishra and ‘Gandhi on Religion ‘of Anju jhamb
are related to the area of research.
In the 21st century the world is growing more and more corrupt
and inhuman every day. Humanity is undergoing a phase of moral
collapse and ethical Nihilism.28 Mahatma Gandhi, a multifaceted
genius, served the humanity an unprecedented new blue print and
alternative views to save the humanity in the era of mad rush for
power and material gain. Gandhian principle on education, religion,
economy construction of society and politics provides a new ray of
hope and it becomes a global necessity for peace, prosperity, security,
freedom, harmony and above all the survival of humanity on this
planet keeping pace with sustainable development.
His philosophy of ‘Swaraj’, ‘Satyagraha’ ’Sarvodaya’ is the source
of unity of mankind. His thought of social and economic equality
serves for the domestic and international harmony. He emancipated
the Indian tradition of ‘Bhakti’, asceticism. Self-sacrifice, self-less
service, truth and non-violence are the guiding principle of human
welfare and stability of mankind. All these are possible if value based
education is arranged and imparted in school education.
The book Gandhi and 21st century was edited by Janardan
Pandey is the collection of selected29 articles written by eminent
28. Jolly, S.K. (2006). (ed.).Reading Gadhi.New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company.
29. Bose , N. K. (1948).(ed). Selection from Gandhi . Ahmedabad, Navajiban Publishing
House, p.223
16 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
scholars showing the relevance of Mahatma Gandhi in the 21st
century. Twenty First century is concerned with environmental
challenges and sustainable development on which Gandhi led
stress in the first half of 20th century. His ideals of Non-violence,
Truth, Equality, Universal brotherhood, Decentralized Democracy,
Socialism, and Secularism and above all his idea of education
could guide the crises ridden world of the 21st century. ‘The world
as a whole has never been so challenged as it today’. Intellectual
confusion, Mass unemployment, Environmental pollution, poverty,
violence, lawlessness all these multidimensional crises of the
present century has caused man ceased to be exist. Spiritual nature
of man is overlooked today having advance knowledge of science and
technology. Sophisticated computer technology has brought material
progress but spiritual perfection of entire mankind can be realized
only through the life of moral action. Gandhi rejects any religious
doctrine that does appeal to reason and is in conflict with morality.29
He mentioned in his article ‘Gandhian Human Civilization in the
Twenty –First Century’, that Gandhiji welcomed every improvement
in the village craft if it led to increase in productivity.30
Kumarappa (1952) writes that the most sacred and pre form of
economy can be seen in the mother-nature of woman. This is the
tenderness with which she deals with matters in society. So in
various Ashrams of Mahatma Gandhi women are treated equally
with man.31
In his essay Pragmatism of Gandhian Values in Contemporary
World K.B.K. Singh mentioned that Gandhian values have been labeled
as heavily influenced by earlier thought. ‘It was his singular credit
that he adopted a technique considered value in individual, spiritual
and religious life to the secular and collective sphere of human life.
Banerjee (2003) narrated about the ‘Vedic, Brahmanic Education’,
‘Budhistic Education’ and ‘some aspects of ancient Indian Education’
are related to the area of the research. The main features of Vedic
Education and Vedanta Philosophy mould the educational the
educational thought of Gandhi. During the Vedic period the aim
of education was ‘self- realization’ and according to Gandhiji ‘self
–realization’ is the aim of education. He accepted the concept of
30. Prasad, N. (1985). Hind Swaraj: A Fresh Look. New Delhi: Gandh Peace
Foundation, p. 19.
31. Kumarappa, J.C. (1952). Gandhian Thought. Bombay, Vora and Co.
Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi on Various... 17
‘Brahma’for the development.32
Dash and Dash (2009) mentioned that to Mahatma Gandhi
the immediate aims of education are character building through
community centered education, self-supporting aspects of education.
Social aims and cultural aims are also given importance. The authors
stated that the Gandhian curriculum consisted of “the craft, the
mother tongue of the students, mathematics, social studies, natural
science, music and drawing the Hindustan”. Regarding general
science ‘the lives of great scientists whose sacrifices in the cause of
truth make a powerful appeal to the growing minds’33
Dr. Zakir Hossain Committee opines that the “aim of teaching
drawing is to train the eyes to distinguish various kinds of forms
and colors, to develop the faculty of appreciating the beautiful and to
create an ability in the students to make working, drawing of objects
and pictorial graphs”34 For the introduction of music Gandhiji says,
“The modulation of voice is as necessary as the training of the band.
Physical drill, handicrafts, drawing and music should go hand in
hand in order to draw best out of the boys and girls and create in them
a real interest in their tuition.”35 Professor Das quoted Gandhi’s word
from ‘True education’ to clarify the role of the teachers. Gandhiji’s
word is the ‘mother teacher’. To quote Mahatma Gandhi, “I have not
used the word teacher in this article. I throughout used the word
‘mother-teacher’ in its place.”36
Dehury, Dinabandhu, in his research article Mahatma Gandhi’s
contribution to Education shows that the views of Gandhi on education
allows the mind, health hand and eyes to work simultaneously
resulting in harmonious well balance personality. In this article five
significant contributions to education are focused. Appropriate and
realistic curriculum focusing on social and productive skills, a highly
effective Teacher training Programme and the accountability of the
32. Banerjee, J. P. (2003) . Education in India, Kolkata, Amitava Roy Central Library.
33. Dash, B.N.,&Dash,N.(2009). Thoughts and Theories of Indian Educational
Thinkers. New Delhi, Dominant Publishers and Distributors.
34. Basic National Education, p.25. cited in Dash, B.N.,&Dash,N.(2009). Thoughts
and Theories of Indian Educational Thinkers. New Delhi, Dominant Publishers and
Distributors.
35. Harijan, September, 11, 1937. Ibid. cited in Dash, B.N.,&Dash,N.(2009). Thoughts
and Theories of Indian Educational Thinkers. New Delhi, Dominant Publishers and
Distributors.
36. True Education, p. 147. Ibid.
18 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
local community are the key issues generated by a good and effective
system of education on Gandhian view points.
Belo Mehra in his research paper Aims of True Education: Sri Aurobinda
and Mahatma Gandhi critically examined the key similarities and
differences between Sri Aurobindo’s and Mahatma Gandhi’s approaches
to Education. This paper is an attempt to understand Gandhi’s vision for
education in the light of Sri Aurobido’s approach to education. According
to Gandhi ‘self realization’ is the Sunambonum of life and education.
The real aims and objectives particularly the social and spiritual aims of
education are clearly defined by him in this paper. This comparative study
will reveal the effective nature of education for the humanity.
Rao in his Educational Philosophy of Mahatma and Swami
Vivekanand : A comparative study gave emphasis on the philosophical
base of education. He mentioned that the educational philosophy of
Swami Vivekanand and Mahatma Gandhi has shown that both the
thinkers were human lover. Moral and character building education
according to them is the ideals of man making education. Both of
them proposed activity oriented education and that could be the
insurance of unemployment. Gandhiji believed in child centered
education. The comparative study of this paper has revealed the
essence of Gandhian view points on education.
Rajshekharan Pillai V. N. in his article Gandhi’s Concept
of Education and its Relevance in the Present Day discussed the
relevance of Gandhisim in the cyber age. To M.K.Gandhi ‘education
is for life, through life and throughout life.’ ‘Naitalim’ or the new
education was expected to provide healthy relationship between the
village and city for eradication poisoned relationship between the
classes. In this paper he shows that Gandhiji wanted self-supported
work oriented education to eliminate the socio-economic imbalances
in Indian society. The highest development of mind and soul is
needed to instill courage and self-reliance in the individual. The
scholar also shows in his paper that Gandhi’s Scheme of education
was nationalist in setting, idealist in nature and pragmatic on one
hand, social in purpose and spiritual in intent.
Philip Joseph in his research paper Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of
educational Leadership mentioned that as an educational philosopher
Gandhiji gave importance on both theory and practice. He considered
the British system of education impractical and destructive. To him
colonial system of education was unmitigated evil. The purpose of
Gandhian education is to raise man to a higher moral and spiritual
Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi on Various... 19
order through the full development of individuals.37
He established Phoenix and Tolstoy Ashram in South Africa and
Sabarmati and Sevagram ashram in India. The teaching –learning
process in the Ashram shaped, altered and elevated the values and
goals of education. He wanted to bring about a social change to enable
learners for self-less service to the motherland (Thomson, 1993).38
Mahatma Gandhi always made the craft as the centre of pupil’s
activities in the ashrams which made them self-supporting. He
mentioned common goals, norms, values and beliefs of the Ashramic
culture to be followed by the associates in the ashram. In all his
ashrams, the main aims were for the development of the individual
and the establishment of a non-violent cooperative social order.
He motivated the pupils to get such results through mutual love
between the teachers and pupils (Bryman, 1992).39
Mahatma Gandhi advocated a healthy teaching–learning
environment in the educational institutions as the Ashrams had. The
associates in the Ashram had unconditional trust in their Ashram
life with competency, openness, honesty and reliability between coworkers.
They were capable of sharing common goals, norms, values
and beliefs with those associated with ashrams culture. Leaders act
as “servants” to their followers (DePree, 1989).40
Mahatma Gandhi gave emphasis on self-regulated discipline
for the all round development of the pupil. He himself practised
asceticism and followed a disciplined lifestyle which inspired his
followers to practice the same lifestyle. In the ashrams he succeeded
in articulating the collective purposes and motivated the residents
through love and affection. Generosity and kindness was Gandhi’s
notable character in establishing relationship with his followers.
This environment is congenial for the behavioral changes of the
learners. Gandhi always encouraged participation and involvement
of the students realizing that team achievements and success would
be the objectives of education. (Capodagli and Jackson, 1999).41
37. Joseph, P. (2012). Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of educational Leadership. Karachi ,
Asian Institute of Advance Research and Studies.
38. Thomson, M. (1993). Gandhi and His Ashrams.
39. Bryman, A. (1992). Charisma and Leadership in Organizations. London, Sage
Publishers.
40. DePree, M. (1989). Leadership is an Art. New York, Doubleday.
41. Capodagli, B., & Jackson, L. (1999). The Disney Way. New York, McGraw-Hill.
Relevance of Value
Education on Gandhian Line
A value consists of a set of metaphysical beliefs about
man and life. Values are derived from socio-philosophic
tradition with its root deep in the past. The word value
is derived from a Latin word ‘valerie’ meaning to be strong and
vigorous. Secondary education is an important stage of education.
The development of the student is now a great concern. So efforts are
being taken to include social, political, economic, moral, aesthetic
and religious values in the secondary curriculum. Inculcation of
values in schools and college levels is increasingly discussed in many
forums in the present day due to continuous value erosion. To stem
the further decline of values, inculcation of values is more necessary
today.
Education for values is a thrilling question today that paves the
way to the learners to march towards Truth, Goodness and Beauty.
In order to develop the affective domain of the pupil, personal values
in terms of tastes, impulses, feelings, attitudes and interest play an
important role to bring desirable behavioral changes.
The central Govt. has started a separate cell for Education
in Human Values (EHV) and has identified the NCERT as the
resource center for Value Education. The present education system
4.
Relevance of Value Education on Gandhian Line 21
is reflecting more or less borrowed ideologies and philosophies; and
the national values are really neglected.
Mahatma Gandhi emphasizes on inward values more than
the outer ones which stand for the spiritual and divine essence of
man’s growth and development. Chakrabarti (2007) mentioned
that ‘Gandhi’s primary concern for excellence of man by means of
education for values is to arouse and awaken the inherent Divine
Being.’42
Choudhuri Sandhya In her research paper Gandhi’s Views on
Value Education—Their Relevance in Twenty- first Century has
shown that Mahatma Gandhi adhered to Truth(Satyagraha),Nonviolence
(Ahimsha), Service to the poor(Daridra narayana), Social
justice, Character building, and they are regarded as the permanent
values through the generations and they are practiced in society in
times immemorial.43
Ancient Indian concept of education influenced Gandhiji for
giving emphasis on true knowledge, freedom from ignorance,
salvation and self-realization. The values of Rig Veda accepted
by Gandhiji for making man self-less and self-reliant is relevant
today. His thought followed the dictum of simple living and high
thinking is more popular for making the society a welfare one. The
scholar of this paper gave emphasis on Gandhian thought on all
round development- body mind and spirit. But the present system
of education refuses moral and spiritual development which is the
main solution of all problems of human civilization. This is related
to the area of research.
Gangrade, K.D. mentioned in his paper Gnadhi’s Autobiography:
Moral lessons that ‘My Experiment with Truth’ the autobiography of
M. K. Gandhi has attracted worldwide attention for the progression
of human soul. He tried to look at men and matters from an ethical,
moral and spiritual point of view. Ethics, Morality and Spirituality
all seem to have become the things of the past in the present
materialistic and consumerist attitude of human beings. Still we gloat
over such endearing concepts such as ‘global human family’, ‘global
village’, ‘world without boundaries’, ‘warless World’. Though the
physical boundaries are dismantled, mental and psychic boundaries
42. Mohit C. (2007). Value education, New Delhi, Cocept Publishing Company,p.68
43. Pandey, j. (1998). (ed). Gandhi and 21st Century.New Delhi, Concept Publishing
Company, pp.218-21.
22 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
prevent the rich nations from sharing their excess wealth for the
welfare of the less privileged humanity. Here the author has shown
in his paper that Gandhi, an uncompromising experimenter tested
his ideas in the laboratory of his own life in order to gain insights
and true knowledge keeping men as the prime concern and no
amount of criticism, jealousy, ignorance could efface the importance
the importance of his experiments. Each line of his autobiography
is a gem of infinite wisdom and his valuable lessons appear to be
the guiding principles of contemporary society. Gangrade narrates
that Gandhi’s experiment offer to each individual in the moral
reconstruction of our society along Gandhian lines. Gangrade finds
the autobiography as an ocean of infinite importance in shaping
one’s life. From the lesson of Gandhi’s Autobiography one could truly
build his life through self-realization which is the aim of education.
Prabhu R.K. & Rao U. R. in their edition Encyclopedia of
Gandhi’s Thoughts clarified that According to E. M Forster Gandhiji
would be considered the greatest man of our century. Holms J. h.
described Gandhiji as ‘the greatest Indian since Gautama the Budha
and the greatest man since Jesus Christ. His greatness lay in his
thought, achievement and in his character for his selfless devotion
to the mankind. ‘Truth’ and ‘non-violence’ which he had preached
and practiced in his life was a new philosophy. Prabhu and Rao
mentioned that Gandhiji rejected material progress as it leads
to self-annihilation and accepted moral forces for the liberation
of mind. Gandhi’s views on moral, social, political, and spiritual
affairs, his religion of humanity and purity of thought reflected in his
educational views. This book is a systematic collection of Gandhiji’s
thought on truth, non-violence, Satyagraha, love, faith, Non-violence,
labour, Naitalim education and so on. Gandhi’s opinion on ‘Naitalim’
education, female education and sex education are described in
this book and it is shown that mere literacy is not education. True
education comes only through proper exercise and training of bodily
organs. To Gandhiji a harmonious development of body, mind and
soul is true education. ‘Naitalim’ is a new training- a blend and
integration of craft, art, health and education. These views reflected
in this book will show a new dimension to the area of research.
Gandhiji considered value education from the sand point of ethics
and aesthetics. Education is the cultivation of knowledge for purity
of mind and perfection of character. If the lost glory of India is to
recover then value education is the way.
Relevance of Value Education on Gandhian Line 23
Chakrabarti (2007) in his book Value education mentioned that
education for values is a thrilling question today that paves the way to
the learners to march towards Truth, Goodness and Beauty. In order
to develop the affective domain of the pupil personal values in terms
of tastes, impulses, attitudes and interest play an important role to
bring desirable behavioral changes. In this book the writer has shown
the philosophical, sociological and psychological parameters for value
formation, value generation and value transmission to the learners.44
Pritam A Sorokin in his essay The Factor of Creativity in Human
History that ‘everything truly valuable in this human universe of
which man can be proud….by his constructive creativity……For
these reasons maximum cultivation and development of this creative
grace is man’s paramount task of the present and the future’45
Through the introduction of proper education creative values could
be grown. Greed and Selfishness haunted man and create conflict
between man and nature. Gandhi wanted to form a decent and
simple life society.
Lohia Ram monohar states that the values of Gandhian line
lessen the conflict between man and nature to help the future
generation for safer world. ‘Simple living is a revolution by itself, for
it goes against the prevailing taste and economy’46 Environmental
pollution can be controlled through the values of simple living.
Horace Alexander stated that Gandhi was not an orthodox
Christian; neither was he an orthodox Hindu. He combined in his
own person, much of the richness of the Hindu tradition with some
of the best in the Christian tradition.47 To him religion is truth and
truth is religion.
Eric Fromm mentioned that ‘After he (man) has satisfied his
animal needs, he is driven by human needs. While his body tells him
what to eat and what to avoid-his conscience ought to tell him which
needs to cultivate and satisfy, and which need to let whither and
starve out. Simple life does not mean complete rejection of material
comfort. It aims at elevation of mind so that consumerism does not
44. Chakrabarti, M. (2007). Value education. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, p.67.
45. Pandey, J.(1998). (ed).Gandhi and 21st century. New Delhi: Concept Publishing
Company, p.290.
46. Lohia, R.(1978). Marx, Gandhi and socialism. Hydrabad,Rammanahar Lohia,
Samata Vidyalaya Nyasa.
47. Alexander, H. (1969). Gandhi Through Western Eyes. Bombay, Asia Publishing
House.
24 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
dominate mind. Gandhiji included ‘self restraint’ as a vital element
in human life. Self-restraint is a value which may be defined as
‘nonattachment’ or ‘anasakti’ as stated in the ‘Bhagabat Gita’. This
precious quality of mind distinguishes man from beasts and prepares
man to face sorrow and happiness stoically.
Russell Bertrand pointed out against the value of ‘self-control’
in human life on which gandhiji is so emphatic. Russell denies its
necessity and says, “Self-control…..is not the best way of getting
people to behave well. It has the drawback of diminishing energy
and creativeness. It is like wearing heavy armour….Those that relies
wholly upon self –control become stiff and timorous through fear of
themselves. But the impulses to which they allow no outlet continue
to exist and, like rivers that dammed; they must overflow sooner or
later.”48 It is no doubt that some amount of self-restraint is needed by
man but it must not be the imposition. It should be cultivated with
full awareness. A man has to know to what extent ‘self-restraint’
is applied. Russelle’s argument is not basically against the value.
Through proper education it is cultivated in human mind. ‘A quiet
life is a boring life’ Russell feels.49
Gandhiji says that the word ‘science’ is a double edged weapon.
It both helps and harms man. Science has given man unprecedented
power. ‘Self-restraint’ helps man to use the benefit of science properly.
Stainislaw H. Wellisz mentioned that with the help of new technology
‘a resource-poor country can overcome its natural handicaps’ for its
development. Gandhian values help to cleanse human hearts of the
poisons of pride, greed, envy and contempt’.
Mahatma Gandhi affirms, ‘Man’s happiness really lies in
contentment. He who is discontented, however, much, he possess,
becomes a slave of desires. And there is no slavery equal to that of
his desires.’ Voluntary reduction of wants promotes real happiness.
Simplicity in habits, Simplicity of heart and Simplicity of character
are the essential values of human life. A great historian of science
George Sarton asserts: ‘there is infinitely more virtue and glory in
creating beauty, justice, happiness than in creating wealth.’50
48. Russell, B.(?). New Hopes for a Changing World. George Allen & Unwin Ltd.,
London (Gandhi and 21st century) p.289
49. Russell, B .(?). Authority and the Individual, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London,
(Gandhi and 21st century) p.290
50. Sarton, G. (?). The Association of Ancient and Medieval Science during the
Renaissance (1450-1650), University of Pennsylvania Press.
Gandhian Education
Communal Harmony, Social
and Religious Development
Human civilization is on brink of several crises and Progress.
Tremendous progress has been made in the field of
Science and Technology. The work of Social and Economic
reconstruction has reached to a Zenith of considerable pitch. But
all social, Political and economic reconstruction involves many
complicated problems of high intense. The development of Science
and Technology and rapid growth of populations have given a new
dimension of problems in the 21st century. The task of education is
not merely turning out first- rate scientists, Engineers, Technicians
and Doctors but making good human being with the help of planning
to impart proper education that creates both technical efficiency and
human efficiency. Roborts can never take the place of human beings
having the quality of truth, beauty and goodness.
A scientist or Engineer or Doctor who can manipulate his
machines or apparatus and conduct his experiments successfully but
becomes an unsuccessful poor human being if he fails to understand
and empathize his fellow workers and fellow men associated with
him. It is true education which makes a man responsive to decent
emotion and structure of character and personality. Neglecting the
value based education we are simply trying to make the wall of
5.
26 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
civilization on the base of sands. Human civilization will fall like a
house of cards if our education fails to advocate and cherish practical
efficiency and high technical skill, appreciation to dignity of labour,
clarity of mind, community interests, and loyalties to fellow citizen,
compassion and tolerance. The increasing trend of materialization,
commercialization and cosumerization peril the base of an ideal
society which is a great concern today. Gandhi wanted to reconstruct
society on the stands of synthesis of cultures of all lands based on
non-violence, peace, justice and freedom. Gandhi believed in God
and to him Truth is God. There is no way of finding truth except the
way of serving humanity and cherishing Non-violence within. It is
possible through secular type of education.
Gopal Krishna Sinha in his article Gandhian Thought in the 21st
Century has shown that In the twenty first century rapid progress
in the field of science and Technology has given unlimited power to
man. This has made a conviction in man that he can be happy by
adopting materialistic attitude. This attitude has made man power
hanger. The world today is in the midst of several deep rooted crises.
Multidimensional crises like Nerve war, Intellectual confusions,
mass unemployment, poverty, Environmental Pollution have made
the world to face a new challenge. How human being will exist
on this planet is a new question today. Gandhian view points on
education and his ideology of awakening a sense of spirituality will
provide salvage to the challenges in the 21st century. Education on
Gandhian line is the true way of life which suggests that man should
be free from tension, violence, hatred, frustration, ecological crises.
Gandhi’s new concept of satyagraha conceived as a new technique
of Non-violence serves the need of brotherhood and harmony in
the society in the midst of terrorism, communalism, groupisim,
regionalism, linguistic conflict.51
Bharati (1991) defines a comprehensive exposition of Gandhi
as a social thinker and shows that his ideology has a rational
philosophical validity for the reconstruction of society and economy
of a country. According to Mahatma Gandhi ‘man is the epitome of
the universe’. Human nature may be called the state of transition
from the animal into the divine. Animal nature gives priority to self
attachment, desire for sense pleasure and enjoyment and clinging to
51. Sinha, G K. (1998). Gandhian Thought in the 21st Century. Cited in Pandey
J.(Ed.).Gandhi and 21st Centry . New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, p.94
Gandhian Education Communal Harmony.... 27
earthly life. But every human being possesses the divine image and
blessed qualities within. The Vedanta teaches that all human being
are the image of God. The Upanishadas proclaim that spirituality
is the prerogative of man and condemn man’s pursuit of worldly
wealth and power. Education is the only weapon that makes a
man more divine and spiritual and gives privileges to overcome all
adverse circumstances. ‘Gandhiji believed in the ultimate goal of
man or human birth i.e. Self realization’52 Self realization is possible
if values are generated through moral and spiritual education.
Gandhiji gave importance on the self-purification to make a
balanced blend between right thought and right action. Perception,
observation and contemplation of truth are the way of realisation of
the totality of reality. Gandhian constructive work aims at removing
disparity at social, political, economic and spiritual level. He gave
emphasis on reshaping education at grass root levels for bringing
movement in constructive work. Gandhiji believes in absolute
oneness of humanity and it is possible through self-realization and if
‘Sarvodaya’ is materialized. ‘Sarvodaya stands for the emancipation,
the uplift and the elevation of all.’53
Chakrabarti (1992) mentioned that Humanism is the real
identity of man. It is the inner awakening of human consciousness
and dedication to the welfare of mankind. It makes an introspective
approach to Gandhian viewpoints on education as a purified process
of self enrichment to forge ahead in the quest for true humanism.
With the advancement of science and technology man has reached
today at the zenith of Flourish and Perish.54 Man has been dominated
by manmade machines. Human imagination is ruthlessly toyed with
automation, super computerization and mega machines. Society a
composite mixture of nuclear families has become robotized.
Development of 3Hs-Head, Heart and Hands through educationthe
real essence of humanism has lost its importance. The principle
of equality is one of the fundamental aspects of Humanism. Selfdependence
through the use of spinning wheel (Charkha) accelerates
true humanism. Self-purification is a great humanistic force is the
end to reach the farthest limit of humility. Self- purification the
52. Bharati, K.S. (1991). The social Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi:
Concept publishing company, p.104
53. Ibid. p.134
54. Chakrabarti ,M.(1992). Gandhian Humanism. New Delhi: Concept publishing
company, p.11
28 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
observance of the law of ‘Ahimsha’ being highly infectious leads to the
purification of one’s surroundings.55 Ideal humanism is soaked in the
stream of love, affection, faith and empathy. Gandhian Humanism
is the reflection of ‘Basudhaibva Kutumbakam’ lies in endearing all
irrespective of caste, creed, colour, community, race and religion.
Self less serving to humanity is the serving to God. In the ocean of
lives life is where there is love, life without love is death.56
The quality of detachment, purity of thought and heart, loving
sacrifice of one’s little self interest are the strategies of Gandhian
humanism. Right type of education on the gandhian view points
is the source of global humanism and welfare of the humanity.
Gandhian humanistic approach, the source of human values, could
be the guiding principle to impart right type of education (sa vidya
ya vimuktya) to our future generation for saving mankind from the
onslaught of global terrorism, violence and erosion of values of life.
Gandhian humanism is to be empowered with the weapon of selfrestraint.
57
Reading Gandhi edited By Surjit Kaur Jolly Comprising of sixteen
articles, among those ‘Hind Swaraj’ and ‘Sarvodaya Philosophy’ of
Anil Datta mishra, ‘The Critque of modernity with Special reference
to Bhiku parekh of Jainarain Sharma, ‘An alternative Modernity
with reference to hardiman’ of R. P. Mishra, ‘Gandhi and Women’ of
S. K. Jolly, ‘Gandhi’s View of Swaraj’ of Ashu Pasricha, ‘Relevance
of Gandhism’ of Jita Mishra and ‘Gandhi on Religion ‘of Anju jhamb
are related to the area of research.
In the 21st century the world is growing more and more corrupt
and inhuman every day. Humanity is undergoing a phase of moral
collapse and ethical Nihilism. Mahatma Gandhi, a multifaceted
genius, served the humanity an unprecedented new blue print and
alternative views to save the humanity in the era of mad rush for
power and material gain.
Gandhian principle on education, religion, economy construction
of society and politics provide a new ray of hope and it becomes a
global necessity for peace, prosperity, security, freedom, harmony
55. Gandhi, M.K. (1959). An Autobiogrhy. Ahmedabad: Navajiban Publshing House,
PP.370-371.
56. Prabhu, R. K., parbhu U.R., & Rai, U.R. (1945). The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi.
(compiled), London: Oxford University Press, P.71.
57. Chakrabarti M. (1992).Gandhian Humanism, New Delhi, Concept publishing
company, p.25.
Gandhian Education Communal Harmony.... 29
and above all the survival of humanity on this planet keeping
pace with sustainable development. His philosophy of ‘Swaraj’,
‘Satyagraha’ ‘Sarvodaya’ is the source of unity of mankind. His
thought of social and economic equality serves for the domestic
and international harmony. He emancipated the Indian tradition
of ‘Bhakti’, asceticism, self-sacrifice, self-less service, truth and
non-violence which is the guiding principle of human welfare and
stability of mankind. All these are possible if value based education
is arranged and imparted in school education.
Anil Dutta Mishra in Sarvodaya Philosophy mentioned that
‘Sarva’ means all and ‘Udaya’ means rising. ‘Sarvodaya’ means
rising of all or the welfare of all. The word appeared in the form of
the title for the Gujrati translation of John Ruskin’s book entitled
‘Unto the Last’.58 Sarvodaya implies the participation of all kinds of
people irrespective of class, caste, creed and religion. It stands for
the blossoming of all faculties-physical, mental and spiritual of the
human being. It is the full realization of the human faculties of the
human soul.59
Janardan Pandey has shown in his book Gandhi and 21st Century
the relevance of Mahatma Gandhi and all the articles of this book
show that Twenty First century is concerned with environmental
challenges and sustainable development on which Gandhi led
stress in the first half of 20th century. His ideals of Non-violence,
Truth, Equality, Universal brotherhood, Decentralized Democracy,
Socialism, and Secularism and above all his idea of education
could guide the crises ridden world of the 21st century. ‘The world
as a whole has never been so challenged as it today’.60 Intellectual
confusion, Mass unemployment, Environmental pollution, poverty,
violence, lawlessness all these multidimensional crises of the
present century has caused man ceased to be exist. Spiritual nature
of man is overlooked today having advance knowledge of science and
technology. Sophisticated computer technology has brought material
progress but spiritual perfection the gal of entire mankind can be
realized only through the life of moral action. Gandhi rejects any
58. Mahajan Mani, P. and Bharati, K. S. (1987). Foundations of Gandhian thought.
Nagpur: Dattsons, p.68.
59. Sharma, B.S. (1960). The Philosophical Basis of Sarvodaya. Gandhi Marg, Vol. 4.
No.3, p.259
60. Conro Dona, B. (1990). The church Awakening to the Global environmental Crisis
in America, February 17,P.149
30 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
religious doctrine that does appeal to reason and is in conflict with
morality.61 The articles ‘ Gandhian Human Civilization in the Twenty
–First Century’, ‘ Role of women in the 21st Century on Gandhian
Lines’, ‘Gandhian Thought in the twenty first Century’, ‘Man
Machine dilemma and Gandhian View of Sustainable development’
open a new horizon in realizing the significance of Gandhian views
in socio- economic and educational scenario.
Dash and Dash (2009) mentioned that the immediate aims of
education are character building thorough community centered
education, self-supporting aspects of education. Social aims and
cultural aims are also given importance. The most attractive aspect
‘problem of sex-education’ is shown as an integral part of education.
The main features of Basic Education particularly the selection of
curriculum is related to the research area. Stages of basic Education,
causes of failure of basic Education and the details of Naitalim
Education are reflected in this chapter. Naturalistic, Idealistic and
pragmatic tendency in Gandhian Education is given emphasis in this
book.62 Patel M. S. stated in his article ‘The Educational Philosophy
of Mahatma Gandhi’ that Gandhi’s ‘educational philosophy as
naturalistic in setting, idealistic in aims and pragmatic in method’
Pani R. S. mentioned in Educational ideas and Ideals of Gandhi and
Tagore that Mahatma Gandhi synthesized these three important
philosophies and brings a harmonious blend of these diverse called
‘electicism’.
Gandhi’s views on education were the outcome of his lifetime
training, experience, and experimentation of the basic scheme
of education at the Tolstoy Farm, the Sabarmati Ashram and the
Satyagraha Ashram.63
Gangrade, K.D. mentioned in his book Gnadhi’s Autobiography:
Moral lessons that ‘My Experiment with Truth’ the autobiography of
M. K. Gandhi has attracted worldwide attention for the progression
of human soul. He tried to look at men and matters from an
ethical, moral and spiritual point of view. Still we gloat over such
endearing concepts such as ‘global human family’, ‘global village’,
61. Bose, N. K. (1948). (ed). Selection from Gandhi .Ahmedabad, Navajiban Publishing
House, p.223
62. Dash, B. N., & Dash, N. (2009). Thoughts and Theories of Indian educational
thinkers. Delhi: South Anartkali, Dormant Publishers and Distributors, p 145
63. Ibid., p. 147
Gandhian Education Communal Harmony.... 31
‘world without boundaries’, ‘warless World’. Though the physical
boundaries are dismantled, mental and psychic boundaries prevent
the rich nations from sharing their excess wealth for the welfare
of the less privileged humanity. Here the author has shown in his
paper that Gandhi, an uncompromising experimenter tested his
ideas in the laboratory of his own life in order to gain insights and
true knowledge keeping men as the prime concern and no amount
of criticism, jealousy, ignorance could efface the importance of his
experiments. Each line of his autobiography is a gem of infinite
wisdom and his valuable lessons appear to be the guiding principles
of contemporary society. Gangrade K.D. narrates that Gandhi’s
experiment offer to each individual in the moral reconstruction of
our society along Gandhian lines. Dehury Dinabandhu mentioned
in the article Mahatma Gandhi’s contribution to Education that
the views of Gandhi on education allows the mind, health hand and
eyes to work simultaneously resulting in harmonious well balance
personality. Gandhian view points in this regard mentioned in this
paper is related to the area of research.
Belo Mehra in his paper Aims of True Education: Sri Aurobinda
and Mahatma Gandhi have shown the key similarities and
differences between Sri Aurobindo’s and Mahatma Gandhi’s
approaches to Education are critically examined to show their social
relevance. This paper is an attempt to understand Gandhi’s vision
for education in the light of Sri Aurobido’s approach to education.
According to Gandhi ‘self realization’ is the sunambonum of life and
education. The real aims and objectives can be realized this paper.
Social aim of education is clearly defined in this paper. The nature
spiritual education is also highlighted in this paper. Psychic and
spiritual education is categorically emphasized in this paper. This
comparative study will reveal the effective nature of education for
the humanity.
Rao, K. in his paper Educational Philosophy of Mahatma and
Swami Vivekanand: A comparative study mentioned that the
educational philosophy of Swami Vivekanand and Mahatma Gandhi
has shown that both thinkers were human lover. Moral and character
building education according to them is the ideals of man making
education. Both of them proposed activity oriented education and
that could be the insurance of unemployment. Gandhiji believed in
child centered education. The comparative study of this paper will
help to realize the essence of Gandhian view points on education.
32 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Rajshekharan Pillai V. N. in his paper Gandhi’s Concept of
Education and its Relevance in the Present Day discussed that the
relevance of Gandhisim in the cyber age. To M. K. Gandhi education
is for life, through life and throughout life. ‘Naitalim’ or the new
education was expected to provide healthy relationship between
the village and city for eradication poisoned relationship between
the classes. This paper shows that Gandhiji wanted self-supported
work oriented education to eliminate the socio-economic imbalances
in Indian society. The highest development of mind and soul is
needed to instill courage and self-reliance in the individual. The
scholar shows in his paper that Gandhi’s Scheme of education was
nationalist in setting, idealist in nature and pragmatic on one hand,
social in purpose and spiritual in intent. Gandhi’s view points and
values are assessed in this paper.
Mahatma Gandhi advocated his educational thought that teaches
to follow the Truth and Non-violence. He advocated ‘Satyagraha’ as
a means of fighting against injustice of all kinds.
His thought and philosophy had a global appeal when it was
seen that non-violent resistance was used by Norwegians during
the Second World War; by the people of Czechosovakia in 1948 and
the poles in the 1970s. Martin Luther King followed the Gandhian
method when he fought for equal status for the blacks in the USA.
He put down six principles of non-violence in his book Stride towards
Freedom. King and his colleagues named the Education Fund as the
Gandhian Society for human Rights. Inspired by King Luther an
institute in Atlanta (Georgia, USA) where Non-violent method of
policing is taught to police personnel.64
Nelson Mandela consciously adopted a policy of national
conciliation in the spirit of Gandhi. The concept of Shanti Sena
inspired the west for a Global International Peace Force and it came
into existence when Hague appeal for peace in 1999. The Tian-An
Men Square movement in China in 1989 was non-violent. Gene
Sharp, an American professor specializing in Gandhian methods,
has shown that in different parts of the world non-violent struggle
has become popular to resist against foreign aggression.65
64. Paige, G.D., ( 2002). Non-killing Global Political Science. New Delhi: Gandhi
Media Centre.
65. Gene Sharp, ‘The Political Development of Non-violent Struggle: Past and Future’,
paper presented at workshop at Gandhi Smriti and Darshan Samiti, New Delhi,
September 18-19, 1998.
Gandhian Education Communal Harmony.... 33
Huxley (1946). mentioned that Gandhi’s idea on Swaraj stands for
political freedom and freedom from economic deprivation. Gandhi’s
doctrine of Trusteeship was a novel idea to resolve the rich-poor
classification. It encouraged the Bhoodan Movement by his disciple
Vinoba Bhabe. Swaraj also emphasized on self-control-the value
based education for character building.66
In the 21st century modern world is facing unprecedented
crises and violence has replaced the force of love. So the question
arises whether Gandhian thought is relevant today. Education on
Gandhian line enhances self -restraint against materialization.
But in the process of modernization, some traditions persist and
some undergo changes. Tradition may become the instrument
of modernization. There is no complete divorce between tradition
and modernity. Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi India’s
traditions were re-furnished and mobilized. He did not reject rational
and scientific approaches to problems ‘so long as they accorded
with his moral principles’ admitted David Hardiman.67 A few years
ago more than 60 Nobel Prize winners expressed concern over the
world crises and considered Gandhian thought as the ray of hope of
humanity. Albert Einstein the greatest scientist of the last century
told abouught is irrelevant particularly in the present scenario.
Naipal, V. S. in his classic work ‘India: A wounded civilization’
mentioned,‘No Government can survive on Gandhian fantasy; and
the spirituality……has soured more obviously into the nihilism that
it always was,’ Anthony Parel opined, ‘his theory is also closely tied
to such modern ’68
Ronald Terchek, J. mentioned in Gandhi Struggle for Autonomy
that his reconceptualization of autonomy and equality, allied as
they are with community, duty, and cohesion, are oppositional to
modern ones. ‘Gandhi seeks to complicate modernity and rob it of its
certainty.’69
According to E. M Forster Gandhiji would be considered the
66. Huxley, A. (1946).Science, Liberty and Peace, New York: Harper & Row.
67. Hardiman, D. (2003).Gandhi in His Time and Ours, New Delhi, Permanent Black,
203 p.77
68. Parel, Anthony J. (1997). (ed). Hind Swaraj and other writings, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.
69. Ronald Terchek, J. (2000). Gandhi Struggle for Autonomy. New Delhi : Visitor
Publications, p. 78
34 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
greatest man of our century. Holms J.H. described Gandhiji as ‘the
greatest Indian since Gautama the Budha and the greatest man
since Jesus Christ.’ His greatness lay in his thought, achievement
and in his character for his self-less devotion to the mankind. ‘Truth’
and ‘non-violence’ which he had preached and practiced in his life
was a new philosophy. He rejected material progress as it leads
to self-annihilation and accepted moral forces for the liberation of
mind. This book is the source of Gandhi’s views on moral, social,
political, and spiritual affairs. This book helps to understand his
religion of humanity and purity of thought that reflected in his
educational views. This book is a systematic collection of Gandhiji’s
thought on truth, non-violence, satyagraha, love, faith, Non-violence,
labour, Naitalim education and so on. Gandhi’s opinion on ‘Naitalim’
education, female education and sex education are described in
this book and it is shown that mere literacy is not education. True
education can come only through proper exercise and training of
bodily organs. To Gandhiji a harmonious development of body, mind
and soul is true education. ‘Naitalim’ is a new training-a blend and
integration of craft, art, health and education. These views reflected
in this book will show a new dimension to the area of research.
www
Women Education and
Gandhi’s Views
In a democratic country Man and woman are given the equal
right. So the educational opportunity should be equally
served to them. The nature of duty of women is different. So
in some cases women need special curriculum along with the general
education of men. They are being supplementary to one another;
each helps the other, and without the one the existence of the other
cannot be conceived. In framing any scheme of women’s education
this cardinal truth must be constantly kept in mind. In domestic
affairs, in the upbringing and education of children, women ought to
have more knowledge than men.
The cause of illiteracy among the women is not mere laziness
and inertia as in the case of men, the more potent cause is the status
of inferiority unjustly branded on her. Man has converted her into
a domestic drudge and an instrument of his pleasure, instead of
regarding her as his helpmate. This caused semi-paralysis of our
society. Mahatma Gandhi wanted them to be educated but was
against imparting English education to them as it had no application
in their day to day life.70 Gandhi supported education for both boys
6.
70. Prabhu, R. K. and Rao, U.R. (1967).The Mind of Mahatma.Ahmedabad, Navajiban
Publishing House.
36 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
and girls. He proposed free and compulsory education for children of
both sexes of the age group of 7 to 14 years.71
“I will not let anyone walk through my mind with their dirtyfeet.”
Mahatma Gandhi believed that ‘women are the noblest of God’s
creation’ and even ‘she is anyway superior to man in her religious
devotion. He considered woman ‘as an incarnation of ahimsa’. The
question arises, how Gandhiji could evolve deep respect to women.
In childhood he was greatly influenced by his mother and sister.
After marriage his wife Kastrba influenced him. In Ashramic life,
sincerity and commitment of Meeraben and Amrit Kaur impressed
him deeply.
Southard (1981) mentioned that Gandhian feminism stands
on two pillars: gender equality in all respect and gender specific
role differentiation.72 Gandhiji once said both men and women are
supplementary and complement to each other. He quotes from
the Hindu Shastra and establishes that every soul is originated
from Brahman. So there is no difference between the two and the
interpolations in Smriti are false. Prabhu (1967) remarked that
Gandhi repeatedly made it clear and said Indian women were not
inferior to men. This canard had been reflected in ancient writings
whose authors were men.73 Mahatma Gandhi advocated education
71. Patel, M.S. (1935). The Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, Ahmedabad
. Navajiban Publishing house, p.109.
72. Southard, B. (1981). Feminism of Mahatma Gandhi, Gandhi Marg, Vol. 3, No. 71, p.403
73. Prabhu, R. K. and Rao, U.R. (1967).The Mind of Mahatma.Ahmedabad, Navajiban
Publishing House. pp. 232-233.
Women Education and Gandhi’s Views 37
for women to empower them.
“Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do are in
harmony.”
Mahatma Gandhi stated that men had reduced women somewhat
to the position ‘of slave of old’74
Tendlkar (1953) mentioned that Indian Women had lost their
glory and the spirit of courage due to social tyranny. The glory of
Sita, Sabitri, Damyanti, Gargi, Maitreyi is lost. Liberation of women
is the great task to the Congressmen. ‘Let Congressmen begin with
their own homes’.75 They should begin by imparting education to
their own wives, mother and daughters.
Kmarappa (1952) said, ‘The pre form of economy can be seen
in the mother-nature of woman, which is worthy of emulation…
No other form of life is able to express it better than woman, when
she cares for the child, not necessarily her own, but all, and the
tenderness with which she deals with matters in society. The world
shall be richer when left in her hands,’76
Geoffrey Ashe has shown in Gandhi: a study in Revolution that
Gandhi realized the strength and power of women. Women became
74. Gandhi, M.K. (1964).The Role of Women, Anand Hingorani (ed.), Bombay :
Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, p.1.
75. Tendulkar, D. G. (1953). ‘ Mahatma’, New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministryof
Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, Vol.6, p. 24.
76. Kmarappa , J.C. (1952). Economy of Permanence.Ahmedabad, Navajiban
Publishing House. p. 217.
38 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
the leader of satyagraha and had shown their stout heart. This was
proved during the agitation against Black Act in 1913. In South
Africa woman -power got established when they willingly went to
prison. Ashe has again shown that Gandhi knew from his personal
household that as long as the womenfolk insisted, not much could be
made in removing untouchability.77
Erikson (1969) has shown that when women were molested during
communal riots Gandhiji suggested them to either kill the culprit or
kill themselves. This has been linked ‘to his marital experiences and
the feeling of guilt about his natural sensual needs.’78
Ronald mentioned that fearlessness and tolerance are the essential
values of women. Fearlessness means freedom from all external fear.
These values are to be nurtured by the humanity. Proper education to
the women is the cause of removal social barrier and enables women to
come forward.79 Mahatma Gandhi believed that economic freedom could
play a vital role for the empowerment of women. Eleanor Morton has
shown in Women Behind Mahatma Gandhi that Gangabehn became
the first organizer of the Khadi movement in India. All the followers
Kamaladevi, Mirabehn, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, and Anasuyabehn
were efficient and treated to be equal to work with him for his ideal.80
Green (1983) has shown in Tolstoy and Gandhi that Gandhi’s
relation with women was usual but a somewhat unusual relationship
was the one with Saraladevi Choudhrani who protested the personal
attachment of Gandhili with her.81
Eleanor Morton has said in The Women in Gandhi’s Life that
Gandhiji wanted women to preserve their integrity and self-respect.
The women should voluntarily renounce all sexual or ‘lustful’ contact
with their husband. Their love becomes free from the impurity of
lust and so grows stronger. His blessings was the young couple ‘may
have no children’82
77. Ashe, G. (1968). Gandhi: A Study in Revolution. London: Heinemann, p. 122
78. Erikson E. H. (1970). Gandhi’s Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence,
London: Faber and Faber Limited, p. 97.
79. Ronald,D. Selected writings of Mahatma Gandhi, London: Faber and Faber
Limited, pp. 48-49
80. Morton, E. (1954). Women Behind Mahatma Gandhi . London: Max Reinhardt, p. 108
81. Green, M. (1983). Tolstoy and Gandhi, New York: Basic Books, pp. 163-16
82. Morton, E. (1953). The Women in Gandhi’s Life. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co.,
p. 148
Self-Purification, Self-Respect
and ‘Sarvodaya Philosophy’ on
Gandhian View Points
Nagraj mentioned in his paper that Dalit movement was
the firm rejection of the Gandhian model of tackling
the problems of untouchables. Babasaheb’s political
views were different from Gandhian ideology and cultural politics.
Untouchability is the central concern of Mahatma Gandhi.83
Verma(1980) mentioned that Gandhi’s views seek to build a new
society on the foundations of spiritual and moral values. It is an
attempt to meet the contemporary problems struck to India.84
Pandey (1988) stated that Sarvodaya is the emotional integration
and the highest human aspiration. It is the ‘Anasakti’ mentioned in
the Bhagabat Gita and comparable to Platonic detachment.85
It is the highest manifestation of love and attempts at the
greatest good of the greatest number. His educational views are also
83. Nagraj, D. R ‘Self-purification v/s Self-respect: On the Roots of the Dalit
Movement, in The Flaming Feet: A study of the Dalit Movement, Bangalore: South
Forum Press, 1993, pp.1-30.
84. Verma, V.P. (1980).The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and sarvodaya,
Agra, Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal, 4th Edition, p.279.
85. Pandey, B.P. (1988). Gandhi, Sarvodaya and Organizations. Allahabad, Chugh
Publications, pp.20-21.
7.
40 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
meant for the welfare of the people and welfare of the nation. It is an
attempt to reorient human mind and to reconstruct human society.
Mahatma Gandhi wanted to eradicate untouchability as a sacred
ritual of self-purification. Harijan movement was the attempt of
removal of untouchability for purification of soul.
Iyer (1978) stated that Gandhiji invoked the Mahabharata in
support of his view that Dharma signifies the way of truth and nonviolence.
He collected two immortal maxims—
1. Ahimsha-the supreme law of Dharma and
2. There is no other law of Dharma than Sathya or truth.86
Gandhi’s concern for self-purification was by means of education
for values. He establishes values in terms of religious education
which teaches the lesson of enrichment and transcendence of values
and exercising the essence of all religions.
Alexander (1961) mentioned that Gandhi was no orthodox
Christian, but neither was he an orthodox Hindu. He combined, in
his own person, much of the richness of the Hindu tradition with
some of the best in the Christian tradition. These two vital streams
met in him.87
Rathnam Chetty, (1991) that Sarvodaya could be regarded as a
spiritual activity which has both negative and positive meanings.
In negative sense it is not limited to one person or to one group of
persons and nobody is excluded from enjoying its boon.88
Sharma (1960) mentioned that the concept of Sarvodaya
encourages the participation of all people irrespective of class, caste,
creed and religion. It stands for the total blossoming of all faculties
of the human soul-physical, mental and spiritual.89 Dharmadhikari
stated in Sarvodaya Darshan that ‘Sarvodaya is a term with a wider
connotation since it conceives of assimilation of all and not only of
many or most.’ It is the rise of all and the universal welfare for the
all round development of all.90
86. Iyer,R. N. (1978).The Moral and Political thought of Mahatma Gandhi. Delhi:
Oxford University Press, p.226.
87. Alexander, H. (1961). Consider India: An Essay in Values that Gandhi, Bombay:
Asia Publishing House, pp. 40-41.
88. Rathnam Chetty, K. M. (1991). Sarvodaya and Freedom: A Gandhian Appraisal,
New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, p.46.
89. Sharma , B. S. (1960). The Philosophical Basis of Sarvodaya.Gandhi Marg, Vol. 4,
No. 3, July, p.255.
90. Dharmadhikari, D.(?) Sarvodaya Darshan, Sarva seva Sangh Prakashan, Varanasi,
Self-Purification, Self-Respect and.... 41
Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by John Ruskin’s Unto
The Last. It means uplift of the last. Gandhiji termed it as ‘Sarvodaya’.
On the other hand Pradhan (1980) opined in the socialist thought of
Mahatma Gandhi, that the idea of welfare of all formed a part of his
mental make-p even before he read this book.91
Mahatma Gandhi mentioned in his autobiography The Story of
My Experiments with Truth that he first knew the idea of welfare
of all human being. In his own words it could be stated, ‘the first of
these I knew’92
Narayan (1964) mentioned that morality is essential means to
achieve good ends and good society. He impartially observed, ‘In
Marxism any means are good means provided they serve the ends of
the social revolution.’93
Gopalan (1969) mentioned that Gandhi considered means as the
determinant of ends. He stated means are as important as ends.
Gandhi’s unique contribution to the world that means is more
important than ends. This emphasizes on the Niskamakarma that
teaches a person to have control over means not over the ends.94
Tendlkar (1951) mentioned that Mahatma Gandhi believes in the
progressive evaluation of man and the end of man is self-perfection.
So he had the conviction that man must have complete control
over means and means are subordinated to ends.95 angal defined
in Thought and Techniques in the modern world that Gandhiji has
offered seven vows to create a disciplined society. Self-sacrifice is
the essence of Sarvodaya social order. He wanted to establish a
new social order based on social justice, freedom, equality and
fraternity. Sarvodaya society should maintain social obligation like
varnashrama in ancient India.96
p. 18.
91. Pradhan, B. (1980).The socialist thought of Mahatma Gandhi. Delhi: G. D. k.
Publication, Vol. 1, p 284.
92. Gandhi, M. K. (1948). The Story of my Experiments with Truth. Ahmedabad :
Nabajivan Publishing House, p.365.
93. Narayan, J. (1964). Socialism, Sarvodaya and communism, Bombay: A. B. H., p.
149.
94. Gopalan, S. (1969). Means and ends: The Gandhian view .Gandhi Centenary
Volume, , p. 70
95. Tendlkar, D. G (1951). Mahatma, Vol.11, New Delhi: Publications Division, Govt.
of India,p.299. Harijan, 27.2.1949.
96. S. C. Gangal, Thought and Techniques in the modern world, Criterion Publications,
New Delhi, pp. 158-59.
42 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Dutta Mishra (1995) mentioned in Fundamentals of Gandhisim
about the Gandhi’s views on good social order. Indian society was
conflicted with caste-conflicts and it was full of many deep-rooted
evils. Mahatma Gandhi wanted to establish sarvodaya order and
tried to find out solutions to many social problems such as, child
marriages, untouchability, sati, Pardah, negation of education to
women, dowry, polygamy, corruption, exploitation etc.97
Rathnam Chetty(1991) narrated Gandhi’s political views in
Sarvodaya and Freedom: A Gandhian Appraisal and stated that
Sarvodaya political order was based on certain fundamentals.
Mahatma Gandhi believed that all individuals are equally born and
they are the custodians of the supreme power in the state. All must
be well trained for self-rule and they should believe in the divinity of
all individuals and welfare of all.98
Bose (1994) mentioned that Mahatma Gandhi adopted integral
approach to all human problems. So the economic aspects are not
exception as he considered that the basic aim regarding Economics
was to reduce economics to terms of religion and spirituality. He
again stated that ethics and economics are not two different entities.
Economics become immoral and sinful when it hurt the moral-well
being of an individual or a nation.99
Mahajan (1956) mentioned that In Gandhian economic order
there is no room for dependence as it is slavery and to whom selfsufficiency
is freedom. In Sarvodaya economic order man is totally
free from material bondage. Sarvodaya economic system is realistic
and practical. Narayan (1956) in mentioned that the situational back
ground from which socialism and Sarvodaya emerged was different.
But the humanistic ideals of both are same.100
Iyer (1973) mentioned that Mahatma Gandhi emphasized on
self-rule and self-reliance of the people. Even before the term swaraj
towards the end of nineteenth century, the Bengali militants justified
their doctrine of Boycott of British goods in the name of swadeshi or
97. Dutta Mishra, A. (1995). Fundamentals of Gandhisim, New Delhi: Mittal
Publications, , p.14.
98. Rathnam Chetty, K. M. (1991). Sarvodaya and Freedom: A Gandhian Appraisal.
New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, p.66.
99. Bose, N. K. (1994). Mentioned in Selection from Gandhi, Ahmedabad, Navjiban
Publishing House, p.40.
100. Narayan, J. (1956). From Socialism to Sarvodaya. Madras: Socialist Book Centre,
p. 26.
Self-Purification, Self-Respect and.... 43
patriotism.101 During swadeshi movement Mahatma Gandhi adopted
the principle of using Charkha in schools to gained self-reliance and
national self-dependence.
Parel (1997) mentioned that though Mahatma Gandhi was a
critic of modernity and confronted against the foundational principle
of the modern world, there were modern concepts of autonomy and
equality in his ideals.102 His conceptualization of autonomy and
equality, allied as they are, with community, duty and cohesion.
Rudolph & Rudolph (1967) stated that in modern civilization
transformation of society caused due to industrialization, urbanization,
and mass communication. Modern society is differentiated and is
broadly participatory and democratic.103 So students of modern
society have to construct models of societal behaviour under tradition
and modernity, one being opposed to other.
Education is the dynamic side of philosophy. It is an active
aspect of philosophic belief. The theory and practice of education
can never attain perfection unless it is based on sound footing of a
systematic philosophy. Gandhian philosophy helps in formulating
the theory and practice of education. Previous researches are
analysed for examining the real meaning and aims of education, the
motivation of learning, the role of the teachers, and the principle of
framing curriculum, ethical considerations and values. Values are
the important considerations in selecting the curriculum of various
stages of education. From the analysis of the previous research
it is assumed that in India, there is need of the development of a
philosophy of education from the Indian stand point. Gandhian
philosophy is the root source of ideal educational theory and practice
as his philosophy is the integration of Idealism, Naturalism,
Humanism and Pragmatism. Researches show that philosophy of
education deduced from these four ideologies. This may be done
under three heads :
1. The Teacher : who is an ideal teacher?
2. The Learner : who is competent to learn? iii) Teacher-Learner:
how does inter-relation and Interaction between teacher and
101. Iyer, R. (1973). The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma, Chicago, Oxford
University press, p.347.
102. Parel, A. (1997).Hind Swaraj , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. xvi,
introduction
103. Rudolph Lioyd I.,& Rudolph, susnne, H. (1967). The Modernity of Tradition,
Chicago, University of Chicago press, p. 3.
44 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
learner help to achieve man making and character building
education?
Bhatt(1968) suggests on the value crises in India today that the
educators and educational administrators should wake up to the task
of the reconstruction of national scheme of education and its goals by
undertaking a critical and thorough examination of the recent set of
values, their nature, status, types, order, spheres, standards, and soon.
R.M.W. Travers (1969) declared that with the philosophical
studies the sociological problems are also considered peripheral
importance. G Aaron (1968) considered psychological aspects to
reach the goal of education.
Mahatma Gandhi, a great philosopher in the world, synthesized
the three important philosophies-Idealism, Naturalism and
Pragmatism. On the basis of such synthesis of these philosophies,
he propounded his educational thought for the development of
mankind. Gandhian Philosophy and thought on education had
brought a new dimension and fundamental changes for building up
of a new social order based on mutual co operation, tolerance, truth
and non-violence.
But a dismal picture in the sphere of education is seen today as
his glorious thought in the field of education has not been followed.
Educational Institutions have been the breeding ground of violence,
communal conflicts, racial discrimination and social disintegration.
Moreover, education of today has become completely out of touch
both with the realities of life and the upsurge of national aspirations.
It has failed to cope up with the socio-economic problem stirring
up in our country. The morality and human values of the youth
of our country have been decreasing day by day as the system of
education gives the youth a little insight in their national heritage,
culture and values. Mahatma Gandhi categorically emphasized on
the development of social, cultural, economic, environmental and
aesthetic values through the adoption of ‘Learning by doing’ which
will cause ‘all round drawing out of the best in child and man–
body, mind and spirit’. Gandhi wanted to make the child to be more
practical rather than depending upon the accumulation of bookish
knowledge. ‘Gandhiji’s purpose of education was to raise man to
a higher order through full development of the individual and the
evolution of a new man’.104
104. Dash, B.N. & Dash, N. (2009). Thoughts and Theories of Indian Educational
Thinkers. New Delhi: Dominant Publishers and Distributers, P.123.
Self-Purification, Self-Respect and.... 45
Development of Self-dependency, self-sufficiency, self-awareness,
love for truth, non-violence, creativity, life skills, values in life, soul
force and will force are all more pertinent components of Gandhian
educational thought which are necessary to be imparted through
the activity oriented education in the present socio-economic and
educational scenario of West Bengal and in our country as well.
A new vision from the Gandhian philosophy can be achieved to
lead the system of education particularly the Secondary Education
in West Bengal to a new order in the evolutionary perspectives
of global education. Gandhian thought on education is the root of
solutions of all present social, economic and educational problems.
His thought on environmental education also made human being
concerned about the sustainable development and ecological balance
to challenge all sorts of environmental threats in the 21st century.
The research work is initiated to prove that the aims and
objectives of Secondary education, methodology of teaching, desiging
of curricular and co-curricular activities, class room - discipline,
student-teacher relationship, development of student’s personality
and system of evaluation -all these components of education need
to be rejuvenated on Gandhian views to show a new direction and
order in Secondary education of West Bengal to develop the quality
of education.
www
Education in Ancient,
Mediaval and British India
Education of Bengal During Ancient Period Introduction Education system of a nation is an integral part of its culture
and value system that reflects the constituent forces of a
nation’s life. The character of a state, its socio-political and
economic condition and the distinctive identity of the people influences
national culture and education. Education of a nation does not simply
reflect the nation’s past it reflects the present values, demands and
needs of life too. A system of education is the creator, conserver and
custodian of the nation’s culture. Crises of education arise when there
is a gap between the ancient and present culture, between spiritual
and material bases of life and between tradition and progress of life.
The roots of many current problems of education are to be discovered
through the study of history of education properly. A present system
of education simultaneously reflects the past, present and the
projected future. The educational thought of Mahatma Gandhi is the
reflection of the glorious past, ancient tradition, values and culture.
The present culture and education of India is the solid absorption
of Vedic-Brahmanic education, Budhistic education, Islamic and
British education. Culture and education represents continuity from
the ancient, through the Mediaval and to the Present. Several Social,
8.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 47
political, economic, geographical and cultural factors are there to
form the shape of education of a certain period.
“The weak can never forgive. Forgiveness isanattribute ofthe strong.”
Geographical features of Ancient Bengal Geographical limits
of ancient South-west Bengal show that the territory is roughly
bounded by the Lower Damodar and the sea included in some of
the ancient janapadas Radha, suhma and Banga. Tamralipta was
distinguished from other janapadas shown in the brihatsamhita. The
existence of Suhma and Vanga is known from the epics, the Puranas
and the Buddhist and Jain texts. It is known from the Puranas and
the Mahabharata that by the name of Dirghatama sage the five
provinces of ancient Bengal-‘Anga’, (Bhagalpur), ‘Kalinga’(Orissa’),
‘Pundra’(North Bengal), Suhmma’(West Bengal), ‘Banga’ (East and
South Bengal) emerged.105 Earliest Brahmanical culture , missionary
activities of Parsvanatha and Mahavira and the influence of the holy
spot at the confluence of the Ganga and the Sagara referred in the
epics, jaina kalpa sutra, acharanga sutra and Manusamhita shaped
and formed the ancient features of education of Bengal. Socialeconomic
and political domination also played a vital role in shaping
the salient features of education.
Factors Influenced Ancient Indian Education
1. It is amply proved that the civilization of our country has been
greatly influenced by the both Aryan and Non-Aryan culture.
105. Banerjee, J. P.(1985) Education In India, Kolkata: Central Library Publication,
p.p. 9-10.
48 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
The Aryans emphasized on spirituality. The Non-Aryans were
skilled on arts, literature and constructive works. Both the
spirituality of the Aryans and constructive excellence of the Non-
Aryans influenced and reflected in ancient Indian education.
2. Religious and Philosophical thoughts also influenced ancient
education. Religion in ancient India represented certain basic ways
and considered as a regulating principle of every sphere of life.
The humanitarian appeal of Vedic religion became an absorbing
cauldron with ‘humanity’ Social and economic influences are also
equally powerful in shaping the ideals of education.
3. The geographical environment nurtures human nature that
reflects education. The human thoughts and activities differ
region to region. The Aryans settlement in the Ganga-Yamuna
valley gave them advantages of fertile soil and relieved them of
hard struggle for existence. Dr. Radha Krishnan observes, ‘For
thinking minds to blossom, for arts and sciences to flourish, the
first condition necessary is a settled society providing security
and leisure.’ Relieving from the stress and strain of nomadic life
the Aryans could engage in search of truth. The nature’s bounty
and quiet grandeur helped their free thinking and speculative
mind. The output was the Vedic literature literary development.
4. The social system during the Vedic period regulates the
educational system. The ‘Chaturashrama’ and ‘Varnashrama’
imparted social values which were reflected in education.
Education according to ‘varna’ became a principle. The ‘shudras’
got no scope of education. The ‘Brahmanas’, ‘Khatriyas’ and
‘Vaishas’ got the opportunity to receive education. The caste
division led to vocational education.
5. The ancient philosophy propounded by the Rishis controlled
educational concepts and aims. The six philosophies ‘ Sankhya’,
‘ Yoga’, ‘ Niaya’, ‘Vaishesik’, ‘ Purba Mimansha’, and ‘ Uttar
mimansha’ stelled the goal of life and destroyed the evils of
ignorance. The expression ‘Veda’ means knowledge and
‘wisdom’ means the knowledge of the ultimate reality- the
supreme self. The ultimate goal of education defined by
philosophy is self-realisation-the realization of the absolute
self through self-control and detachment from hedonistic life.
In ancient time Yoga and Meditation became an indispensible
part of education to control passions of life called ‘Chitta-Britti-
Nirodha’. Education means acquisition of Truth and wisdom.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 49
Education helps the illumination in the mental world to wipe
out the darkness of ignorance. Education means salvation
and complete bliss in mind. Salvation cannot be attainable
only through the attainment of knowledge but by truth. By
practice and application of knowledge wisdom appears and it
is transformed into power. The exploration of inner self by the
power of meditation is education. The knowledge of salvation
is the ‘Paravidya’ and knowledge of worldly affairs was ‘Apara
vidya’. Both ‘Paravidya’and ‘Apara vidya’ together made
complete education. Mahatma Gandhi gave emphasis on both
‘Paravidya’and ‘Apara vidya’ to reach the goal of education.
Aims of Education
Education for self-sacrifice and salvation is the basic aim of
ancient education. The concept of three debts- the debt to parents
for acquiring parenthood, debt to the Gods for performing yajan and
debt to the Rishis for perpetuating the quest for knowledge are the
sourcefaunt of such aim. The performance of self sacrifices would
lead to self- realization to realize the Brahma –the supreme self
for the attainment of salvation. Ancient education was explained
as some imperative duties of individual as Adhyayana, Siksha and
Vinaya. Ancient education shows that instruction, training and
social motivation were the integral parts of education. These three
integral parts are the essential components of Gandhian philosophy
of education. The recognition of social duties was the acceptance
of politics, military science, moral science, laws, medicine and
vocational preparation as curricular subjects called ‘Apara vidya’.
Periodisation
The first phase Vedic education continues from 1500 B.C. to 300
B.C. The long period may be sub-divided Rig Vedic, Later Vedic
and sutra phase. Vedas, Vedangas, Vedantas and Sutra literature
were the contributors of Brahmanic system of education. The second
phase continued from 300 B.C. to the post Mourya days was marked
by the Buddhism and successive foreign invasion in the post Mourya
era. The third phase starting from the Sunga age to the downfall of
Kanouj and the advent of Turko-Afgan power was marked by the
resurgence and co-existance of Brhmanic education with Buddhist
system of education and interaction between the both.
50 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
The System of Education
Education during the Vedic phase was marked by the residential
pupilage. The cottage of each Guru became a residential school called
gurukul. During Brahmacharya students had to live in Gurukul and
received constant company of the Guru who was a human ocean of
learning and an ideal character for the pupils for illumination their
lives from the darkness of ignorance.
“An ounce of practice is worth a thousand words.”
The students living in Gurukul had to follow strict discipline
and inviolable rules and regulations. There were no tuition fees
and students had to contribute manual labour. Mahatma Gandhi
developed his Ashramic views of education on the ancient Gurukul
system of education. Constant company of the Gurus and fellow
students guaranteed physical and mental perfection.
The collective life developed social sense and responsibility. The
teacher a father-substitute was the friend, philosopher and guide.
Admission in Gurukul and initiation was marked by the Upanayana
ceremony. Relation between Teachers and students was regulated
by reciprocal service and duties. The teacher enjoyed high esteem
and social prestige.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 51
Curricula
The curriculum was formulated on the firm foundation of Vedas,
Vedangas and Vedanta. Sudras and Vratyas had no scope to receive
formal education. They received practical training in their family
trade or profession. It is known from the ‘Sathapath Brahman’ and
‘Taiterio Aranyak’ that various subjects are taught to the pupils living
in Gurukul. They are Phonetics, matrics, Ritualistic knowledge,
Grammar, Exegetics, Astrology, theological discourses, cosmological
myths, explanation of Mantras, Retualistic verses, Science of
numbers, Science of lunar mansion, Astronomy, Demonology, Science
of snakes, Science of conduct, Science of worship of God, Science of
Art and Music and many other subjects.
Methods of Teaching
‘Shrabana, Manana, and Nididhyasana’ were the methods of
learning. The teachers had to deliver knowledge by mouth and the
students had to hear and to preserve in memory. The students were
encouraged to realize the contents of learning through concentrated
thinking, yoga and meditation. The teaching-learning process is
followed these underlying stages.
Sir Maxmullar opined on the methods of teaching which is
worthy to be mentioned. “The young Brahmins who learnt the songs
of Veda, the Brahmanas, the Sutras, invariably learnt them from
oral tradition and knew them from heart. They spent year after
year under the guidance of their teacher, learning a little, day after
day, repeating what they had learnt as part of their daily devotion
until at last they had mastered their subjects and abled to become
teachers in turn”106
™™‘Susrusha’(desire to listen)- ‘Srabanam’(act of hearing)-
™™‘Grahanam’(accepting)- ‘Dharanam’(digestion)-
™™‘Uhapoho’(digestion of what has been taken in),
™™‘Arthabiganam’(grasping the correct sense) and
™™‘Tatyaganam’(knowledge of profound truth) were the principles
of learning.
At the end of 12 years of rigorous student hood a terminal
function called ‘Samavartana’ was held and successful Vidyarthi
after participation in debates, discussions and assemblies, was
conferred degree. Snataks were three types-i) Vidya snatak, (who
106. Ibid, P.11.
52 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
had attained intellectual proficiency) ii) ‘Vrata snatakas’(who had
attained perfection in practices) and iii) ‘Vidya- Vrata Snatakas’(who
excelled in both theory and practices).
Gurukul, Parishada, Ashrama, Chatuspathi and Tol were the
educational institutions. Women enjoyed the privilege of receiving
education. The society and state patronized education. Caste system
in society made the system narrow and conservative in character.
Teachers deserve the place parents. A teacher “must have a
fluent delivery, readiness of wit, presence of mind, a great stock of
interesting anecdotes and must be able to expound the most difficult
texts without any difficult or delay.
‘In a word he should be not only a scholar but also adept in
teaching”107 “Teachers in ancient India regarded their profession
as nobler and higher than any other profession”108 Teacher-student
relation, spiritual and moral urge of education, free education and
dignity of labour related to Ashramic activities are some special
features of ancient education.
Important Aspects of Ancient Education During Rig-Vedic Period
In ancient time religion was the fundamental principle of life.
It is a transcendental communion with the Divine Entity. Religion
consists of regulating principles of every sphere of life. Education had
no exception from it. Religious influence made education implying
morality, virtue and duty. Education of yoga made man to attain selffulfillment
called ‘Chittya vritti Nirodhd’. The ultimate educational
goal was self-realization through ‘Tapa’, ‘Samadhi’, ‘Diksha’, ‘yoga’
and ‘ Sannyasa’. The value education of Mahatma Gandhi lies on this.
Education meant the knowledge of ‘Atman’ through annihilation
of desire and self-revelation. Buddhism believed in ‘Karma’ and
Rebirth. The important features of Rig-Vedic education were-i)
Gurukul education, ii) Brhmacharya, iii) moral fitness of pupils, iv)
Paternal teacher-pupil relation, v) Manifestation of the absolute –
the Supreme being, vi) reverence to cosmic laws as the roots of all
creation. vii) The girls had the privileges to receive education as
‘Brahmabadinis’.
107. Ibid, p.p.13-14
108. Aggarwal, J.C.(1996). Teacher and education in a developing Society, New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House, pvt. Ltd.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 53
Important Aspects of Ancient Education During Later-Vedic
Period
During the later Vedic period the educational institutions named
as Sakhas, Charanas, Parishads, Kulas, Gotras were well organized.
Upanayana was the mark of pupilage in Gurukul. The period of
studentship was twelve years. The attitude towards the dignity of
labour was taught through begging, tending cattle and collecting
woods (Samidh) from the forest. There was scope of acquisition of
higher knowledge and pursuit of knowledge is a lifelong process. The
teachers had the parental attitude to teach their student. He had
to have a strong desire to impart knowledge as it was considered
their duties. The women sect had enjoyed educational rights and
become famous for learning. Paravidya and Aparavidya were
taught. Subjects of study were numerous than in the early Vedic
period. There were Brahmavidya (Ved, Vedanga), Bhuta vidya
(Demonology), Nakshatra vidya (Jyotish), Nidhi Sutra (sacrificial
rituals). Subjects were taught through Question and Cross questionanswer
technique. Yoga was introduced for the attainment of higher
knowledge. Meditation would ensure revelation. Sravana, Manana
and Nididhyasana were the essential part of learning. Educational
institutions were run by the Royal patronage. The Brahmins were
taught Brahma vidya, the Khatriyas were taught Dhanur vidya,
Khastra vidya, the vaisyas were taught agricultural education and
the Sudras were to get training of pasture, cattle rearing, and arts
and crafts.
Education in the Epic Period
During the Epic period several changes related to religion,
politics and economy took place. The growth of powerful kingdom, the
dominance of Khatriya community in polity, the division of society
into castes, and the rise of metropolitan and subsidiary towns all these
changes influenced upon education and culture. The Varnashrama
and Chaturashrama played a vital role in education. Varnashrama
was closely allied to vocational occupations and it was reflected more
in practical and vocational education. Contemporary literature of
Panini and Patanjali showed 64 arts and vocational pursuits. Studies
were selected judging the capacity of the students. Ideal students of
this age were Aruni, Uddalak and Kacha. The growth of Ashramic
education had several departments and branches of learning. They
were Agnisthana ( place of worship), Brhmasthana (place of study),
54 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Vishnusthana (place for teaching political science), Mahendrasthana
(place of military education), Vivasvatas sthana(astronomy),
somasthana(Botany) and Garudasthana(transport andconveyance).
Khatriyas achieved a prominent place in receiving education of
archery, Niti, Military arts and Puranas. Family laws, sciences, music
fine arts and legends were taught. Women would receive education.
Wife of Gargya and daughter of Sandilya showed excellent learning.
Dramatic society was noticed in Ayodhya. Extension lecture and
debates were often organized in towns. A typical urban culture was
the contribution of this age.
Buddhist Education
Budhistic education aimed at ‘Niravana’ through moral
steadfastness and dettachment. Religious thought influenced
Buddhist education more than political or social forces. The history
of Buddhist education is the history of Buddhist sangharam and
here lies the difference with the Brahmanic system of education.109
Buddhist education marked a prominent change in system of
Brahmanic education. Brahmanic education had been monopolized by
the Brahmins but Buddhist education challenged that predominance
and made education possible to reach to all sects. Education became
institutionalized and mass education. Five thousand Viharas spread
the light of secular education. Prakrit the peoples’ language was
the medium of instruction. Budhist education infused elements
of democracy, secularism and universalism in Indian education
and thus traditional Hindu education got elements of changes and
reforms.110
Education of Women in Ancient India
During the Vedic age the women enjoyed the privilege of
receiving education. Learned women were called Brahmabadinis.
They participated in religious and spiritual activities. The wives and
daughters of Rishis received education. The girls had the privileges to
receive education through Upanayana ceremony. Learned daughters
were considered as assets of parents.
Vedic India produced a host of learned Brhmabadinis as
Romasha, Lopamudra, gargi, Apala, Viswabara, Sabitri, debjani,
109. Chandra, S.S.(2003). Indian Education Development, Problems, Issues and
Trend, Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
110. Dash,B.N.,&Dash N.(2009).Thoughts and Theories of Indian Educational
thinkers. New Delhi: Dominant Publisher and Distributers, P. 130.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 55
Maitreyee. Sama and Yajurvedas refer the Brahmacharya of the
virgins. The Taittareya Upanishada shows that married women
enjoyed right to participate in intellectual discourses. Yajnavalka
himself appeared in learned debate with Gargi at the court of king
Janaka. The Upanishadas refer the names of women teachers like
Sulava, Maitreyee Prathiteyee. There were references in Srauta
Sutra and Griha sutra. Women utter Mantras and lighted the fire
of Yajan kunda. This tradition continued in the Epic age. Daughter
of Sandilya and gargya were learned Brahmacharinis. Sulava
participated in learned discussions with king Janaka. Chitrangada
proved her military genius and suvadra proved her excellence in
chariot driving. Draupadi, Sabitri, Pramila were learned ladies of
this age. Women were skilled in painting, spinning, weaving, fine
arts, and music, dice –playing, garland stitching work. Buddhism in
its early stage did not encourage women education but in the later
Ananda pleaded Mahaprajapati Buddha to accept women students
into the Sangharam. Buddhistic India produced a galaxy of women
like Sujata, soma, Anupama, Khema, Kisa and sramani. The women
living in Vihara lived a separate and restricted life. But women
education was declined after Manu’s injuctions. He declared that
marriage of women is equivalent to reading the Veda and spending
Ashramic life. Mahatma Gandhi proposed women education as it
was highly recognized during the Vedic period.
Professional and Vocational Education
Paravidya is the Brahma vidya and it is pure and heavenly
knowledge. Apara vidya helps to lead the worldly life. With the growth
of urban life and expansion of empire vocational specialization and
secular education gradually increased. Ayurveda was an attractive
profession. Charaka, Sasrut, Jivaka were famous Physicians of these
days. Military career was open to all but the Khatryas preferred such
education. The opening ceremony of military career is called ‘churika
Bandana’. Students are taught the theories and practices of military
science. Vaishyas were given commercial education. They were well
versed in accounting, measuring weight. Training for manual labour
was given emphasis. Apprenticeship was extensively in vogue. The
development of guilds of various professions came into existence.
Krishi sangha, vanik sangha, silpi sangha, Gopalak sangha, Karigar
sangha were the evidences of the guilds of different occupations.
The Arthasastra of Koutilya gives an elaborate account of various
arts and crafts. Weaving and spinning, mineral and metal, and silk
56 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
industries prove the existence of training for manual industrial
production. Education for secular arts and crafts and religious art
and architecture continued and flourished in the ancient period.
Architecture and Sculpture in building Stupas, Chaityas, Viharas
was foumous and praiseworthy. All these prove the progress of
professional and vocational education in ancient India. Mahatma
Gandhi initiated such professional and vocational education for
gaining self-reliance of the learners.
Curricular Development in Ancient Indian Education
Curriculum is an integrated pattern of knowledge, experience and
activities necessary for the development of child’s life. “Curriculum
is that reconstruction of knowledge and experience, systematically
developed, under the auspices of the school to enable the learner to
increase his or her control of knowledge and experience.” Curriculum
in the early Vedic age was the reflection of Vedic scriptures which
were spiritual in nature. Curriculum is the reflection of social needs
the curriculum in the early Vedic period was cosmic in nature.
They Aryans developed a curriculum consisting of sacrificial
hymns compiled in Samhitas-Rik, Sama, yaju, Atharva. Vedangas
also (Siksha, Chanda, jyotish, Nirukta and Kalpa) included in
the curriculum. In the later Vedic age subjects like Astronomy,
Astrology, Botany, Geometry, Mathematics were further expanded
its shape and limits. Sutra literature and Mahavashya of Patanjali
were in curriculum. Brahmanic curriculum consisted of Vedas,
Vedangas, Brahmana, Upanishadas, and Itihas –purana, Akhyan,
Vyakhan, Gatha, Khatra vidya, Brhama vidya, Nidhi, Sutra and
various arts and crafts. The curriculum of Buddhist education
started with religious scriptures. Tripitakas- Vinoy, Sutta and
Dhamma Pitaks were the core of it and Brahmanic curriculum was
also accepted in the Buddhist curriculum. Buddhist curriculum
consisted of Itihas-Puranas, Lexicography, Prosody, Phonetics,
Grammar, Astronomy, and astrology, Medicine, Philosophy and
Panini. The basic difference of Buddhist curriculum from Brahmanic
is its secular nature. So Buddhist education incorporated secular
education. Hindu Philosophy, Fine arts and Grammar Influenced
the Buddhist curriculum. Mahatma Gandhi emphasized on child
centric and diversified curriculum as prevailed in the ancient system
of education.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 57
Teacher-Pupil Relation in Ancient India
Mahatma Gandhi believed that Teacher is the creator, preserver
of knowledge and destroyer of weeds of ignorance. Salvation,
illumination and enlightenment constituted the basic aim of education
in ancient India. The ultimate aim of education was self-realization
and the proximate aims were the character building, inculcation
of good habits, moral values and social duties. Formation of ideal
character through proper instruction and training is possible after
receiving the direct contact of Rishis in Gurukul. So the residential
pupilage came into existence. Mahatma Gandhi gave more emphasis
on ideal Student-Teachers relationship and was possible in the
Ashramic system of education. Teachers were highly qualified and
spiritually well versed. They looked after the comforts of the students
and performed parental duties for the all round development of the
pupils. Teaching was oral and professional teaching was imparted
under personal guidance. Pupil’s practical apprenticeship was
under direct contact of the Gurus. Teachers considered his duties
as service. They did not receive fees for their noble duties. Teachers
were considered guardians to take care of student’s health, habit
and conduct. Teachers had to nurse the students in their ailment
and they had immense moral responsibilities. They had to detect
the shortcomings of the students and repair the same with brilliance
and wisdom. Teachers had the sole responsibility of maintaining
institutional activities including admission, expulsion, reward and
punishment. Hence teachers held a high esteem in the society.
Students respected their teachers from the core of their heart. The
pupils had to salute whenever the teachers are met. They had to
take lower seat and even never touched the shadow of the teachers.
They had to render many Ashramic compulsory services. The
relation between teachers and students were cordial and intimate.
In Buddhistic education the students had to rise early, prepare
and serve their meal, wash bowl and accompany their teachers in
begging. Students had to pay their attention to pay reverence, show
devotion and respect the Upadhyayas. Teachers always inspired
the students to be aloof from immoral and irreligious duties. Thus
the direct contact in residential system of Gurukul and Buddhist
Sangharam made the relation between teachers and students more
intimate, direct and cordial. The decreasing trend of student-teacher
relationship today is growing higher for the lack of direct contact of
both between student and teachers.
58 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Management of Education and the Role of Society
The ancient education was the state concern but the teachers
were all powerful in determining the curricula and syllabi, admission
procedure, methods of teaching, discipline and evaluation. The kings
of Kashi-Kosola-Videha and subsequently the monarchs of Mourya,
Kusana, Gupta, and Pala dynasty, kings of the Deccan province
were the great patron of learning. They granted scholarships,
donated land, built the institutions, appointed eminent scholars
and overall encouraged the growth of education and culture. The
richer sections of the society particularly the business men (sresthis)
contributed to spread of education. The poor citizen also helped the
Brahmmacharies filling the begging bowl of the Brahmmacharies.
The Buddhist Viharas were also maintained by the donation and
contribution of the kings and Sresthis. This extensive patronage and
donation made the ancient Indian education ‘free’ to reach the poor.
Educational Institutions
During the Vedic age the basic educational institution was
Gurukul where the Brahmmacharies learnt their lessons. In Gurukul
Gurus delivered lectures and oral lessons to the students who were
considered their sons. In the Aranyaka period Tapoban came into
exist as the institutions.
Tapoban Institution at Prayaga
There was a collective type of institutions called Parishad
represented the assemblies of learned men under the supervision
of them debates, discussions, seminars were organized to make the
students more learned. Persons who were well versed in Vedas, Sruti,
Smiritis and Kalpa got the place in the parishad. In those days, some
professional bodies of west Bengal like Bangiya Sahitya Parishad,
Bangiya Sanskrita Parishad, Bangiya Itihas Samsad, Bigjan Parishad
and some other organizations would perform their educational and
cultural duties. In the Sutra Period the development of Chatus pathi
and Tol came to be known. Some specialized courses like Grammar,
Kalpa, Purana, and Philosophy were offered in the Chatuspathis.
Subjects offered in the Tols were Vyakarana, Kavya, Purana, Kalpa,
Philosophy and Nyaya. The famous teachers attracted the students
from distant places to live in these corporate colonies to receive
education where Maharshi Goutama, Manu and Vasistha lived and
the place of residential pupilage was called Universitis in those days.
These universities were run with the donation given by the monarchs
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 59
and rich students. Buddhist Universities were the large Viharas
controlled and guided by the self-regulated rules and regulations.
University of Taxila
The famous university in the ancient Brahmanic age was Taxila.
It was situated in the capital city of Gandhara. It was on path of
foreign invaders who invaded India. The fame of Taxila continued
unabated till the Kushana period. Famous teachers attracted
students from far and wide and resided with the teachers. Prasenjit,
jivaka and Koutilya received education here. Students had to observe
strict rule and regulations of the university and learn discipline. A
particular standard of education was maintained in the institution.
There was little discrimination on the ground of caste and religion.
So equality in educational opportunity and today’s national goal
of universalization of education was beyond of imaginations. The
curricula of the Taxila University included Vedas, Arts, sciences,
Astronomy, Astrology, Agriculture, commerce, art and craft and
vocational subjects. The glory of this university continued till the
end of the six century.The Huna invasion caused its final damage.
Nalanda
The original Buddhist Vihara of Nalanda was built by the emperor
at the birth place of Buddhist monk Sariputta. It was situated in
the Bihar sharif sub-division of Patna district near Rajgir. ‘Nalanda
comes from two Sinhalese words, ‘land’ signifying high ground with
low jungle and from ‘Na’ meaning an iron wood tree and hence
interpreted as a high ground with low jungle of iron wood trees’.
The admission test was conducted by the Dwarapandit and
those who are successful got admitted at the age of 20. Students
of India and abroad got admission because Nalanda had enjoyed
academic glory during this age. There were 1500 teachers and about
8500 students in this institution. The curriculum included four
Vedas, Buddhist scriptures, philosophy, linguistics, Hetu, Sanskrit,
Arstronomy, Astrology, Agriculture, commerce, art and craft and
vocational subjects. Education was religion based. Hinduism and
Buddhism influenced the curriculum of this university. The fame of
Nalanda attracted Fa- Hien, Hiu-en-Tsang fron China and Tao Ling
from Korea and other students of Cylon, Java, Sumatra and Tibet
came to take admission and witnessed the glory of Nalanda. With
the decline of Pala kingdom Nlanda lost its glory and decayed due to
Turkish invasion.
60 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Vikramsila
Vikramsila Mahavihara was founded by the great Pala king
Dharmapala on the bank of the Ganga near Bhagalpur in northern
Bihar. There were 53 smaller temples and 54 separate buildings within
the campus of the university and Mahabodhi temple was in the center.
Achariya, Upacharya, work-supervisors and executive personnel and
108 wardens discharged their teaching and non-teaching service. The
administration of the Viharas vested in the hands of a management
committee composed of teachers. The chief patronage of Nalanda and
Vikramsila was the Pala kings. Dharmapala was the Acharya of these
two universities. The most learned teacher was known as Kulapati.
Sreejnan Atish Dipankar was appointed as Kulapati. Dwarapandita,
Janapada, Provakaramoti Janasreemitra were the designations of
the teachers. It was totally demolished by the Turko-Afghan armies
and it was used by them as the fort town. The curricula and the rules
and regulations were similar to that of Nalanda.
Jagaddala Mahavihara in Bengal was founded by Ramapala at
his capital town Ramabati. Bibhuti Chandra, Danasila, Subhakara,
mokshakaragupta were the famous teachers. It was destroyed by
the Turko-Afghan invasion in 1203 A.D.
Somepur Mahavihara at paharpur in Rajsahi, Odantapur
mahavihara and the remains of other Viharas abundantly prove the
educational progress in ancient Bengal.
Institutions in Nadia
Nadia was the capital town of Laxman Sena. Dhoyee, the author
of Pavanduta, Joydev, the poet of Geeta Govind, poet Umapati Dhar
and Law giver Sulapani were associated with the glory of Nadia.
The decline of Nalanda and Vikramsila enhanced the importance of
Nadia as the center of Hindu learning. By the end of the 15th century
many schools of Philosophy and thought emerged at Nadia. Basudev
Sarbabhouma founded the Nadia school of Philosophy. Other
famous schools were Raghunandan’s smiriti school, Krishnananda
Agamvagisa’s school of Tantrism, Ramsundar Vidyanidhi’s school.
Till the end of the 18th century the glory of Nadia continued
undiminished. Navadwip, Santipur and Gopal Para were the three
centers of Nadia. Navadwip alone had 400 students and 150 teachers.
Navadwip has a few Chatuspathis and tols famous for learning for
Sanskrit language and debating discussions. Graduation degrees
were awarded to the scholars. Gadadhar Bhatacharya was a graduate
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 61
from Nadia. Every ‘Tol’ was the center for learning of Four Vedas.
So in Bengali term It was called ‘Chaubari’ or ‘Chaupari’. Students
from different parts of country were attracted to learn ‘Smriti’ and
‘Nyaya’. ‘Smriti’ required 8 years and ‘Naya’ required 10 years of
learning. Students lived in the teacher’s house. The Tols founded by
the Zaminders were maintained by them granting money or land. It
was known from the Adam’s Report that Mr. Willson noticed 25 Tols
and 500-600 students in 1829. There were 17 students in Brajanath
vidyaratna’s Tol and 10 students in Madhusudan Nayaratna’s Tol.
The students were from Dacca, Rangpur, Dinajpur Pabna, Rajsahi
and Jessore and Midnapore. The students from Mithila, Delhi,
Puri, and Madras came to Nadia and studied in Prosanna Chandra
Tarkaratna’s tol. To be a scholar in Smiriti eight years and in Naya
ten years were required. Classes were held in the morning or in the
evening whenever it was possible. Naya tols were closed from Ratha
yatra day to Rashpurnima day and smiriti Tols remained closed
From the Bengali month of Bhadra to Kartik. There was no summer
or autumn holiday. There was only a two-week closure for Saraswati
Puja and other ceremonial holidays.
Other Universities in Ancient India
Vallavi in Western India and Jagaddala in Bengal bcame famous
and acquired reputation as the center of learning in between 475 and
775 A.D. Hiu-en –Tsang in his Tsi-iu-qi testified the glory of vallavi
for its 100 Sangharams, 600 Buddhist priests and varied curricular
subjects. The famous scholars Gunamati and Sthiramati attached to
this university. Vallavi attained much glory and became the rival of
Nalanda during this age.
Jagaddal was founded by the Pala king Rama Pala (1084-1130)
at Ramavati. It was the capital town built at the confluence of
Ganga and Karatoya. Famous scholars Bibhuti Chandra, Danasila,
Subhakara and Mokshakaragupta were attached to this vihara.
Its glory continued hundred years. Bibhuti Chandra composed
‘Ganchokhu sadhan’ and famous scholar Danshil translated 54
Buddhist books into Tibetan language. The Turko-Afgan invasion in
1203 A.D. had destroyed the existence and glory of this university.
The remains of Somepore Vihara had been excavated at Paharpur
near Rajsahi in Bangladesh and the remains of big establishment
were also found at Mainamoti flanked by the Lalmai Hills near
Comilla in Bangladesh. All these relics abundantly proved that
62 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
mighty educational institutions had sprung up in ancient Bengal.
Education in Ancient India and Gandhian Thought
In ancient India the aim of education was self-realization.
Gandhiji wanted to make education as the useful means for the
service of mankind. He emphasized on the Physical, Mental and
spiritual development of the learners. To him education will be a
new type for the sake of the creation of a new world. In ancient India
students were taught several values for the creation of responsibility,
accountability and morality. Gandhi followed the path and gave
importance on character building and harmonious development of
body, mind and soul. ‘There can be no knowledge without humility
and the will to learn.’ He derived his thought from the ancient culture
and tradition. Self-learning through manual labour was given
priority. Self- discipline, self- confidence and self- motivation are the
keys of Gandhian thought successfully derived from the Vedas and
ancient ‘Gurukul system’ of education.
Education During the Medieval Period
India’s composite culture in the ancient period had absorbed
many cultural streams that led to the development of education
and literature. The persistent search for truth led to the growth of
varied knowledge through the ages. Dr. Radhakrishnon once said,
‘A rich culture is impossible with a community of nomads’ India
is an ethnological museum where various races irrespective their
religion and caste formed a synthesized and composite culture. Such
variegated knowledge was recognized by Maxmuller, “Whatever
sphere of the human mind you may select for your special studies,
whether it be language or religion or mythology or philosophy,
whether it be laws and customs, primitive arts or primitive science,
anywhere you go, you are to go to India whether you like it or not,
because some of the most valuable and instructive materials in the
history of man are treasured up in India and in India only.’’
Ancient period absorbed many internal and external streams of
culture. The mediaeval period witnessed another mighty culture –the
culture of Islam. The Turko- Afgan invaders infused a new culture
pattern. The conquerors patronized their own culture and tried to
spread to the entire empire the established. The traditional system
of education designated as Hindu system was now bereft of state
patronage. So the rent free endowments enjoyed by the institutions
of learning had been affected. Though the Hindu system of education
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 63
retained its existence because it had deep traditional roots in the
soil but the centers of Buddhist learning could not withstand the
onslaught of destruction of major monastaries. Mediaeval education,
therefore, consisted of the parallel existence of the Hindu and Islamic
system with isolated remnants of Buddhistic learning.
Contributions of the Sultans
Sultan Qutbuddin the founder of the sultanate had a good
command over Arabic and Persian. He initiated a tradition of
providing royal patronage to Fakhr-ul-mulk a great scholar. He was
the founder of Qutb Minar and built Mosques and schools. Sultan
Iltutmish built Madrashas at Delhi and Badaoni. He appointed
Fakhr-ul-Mulak his prime minister and glorified his dominions.
He built a college at Delhi. His learned daughter Sultana Raziya
established a college at Delhi known as Muzzicollege. Nassiruddin
Mahmud founded a college at Jallundher. Ghiasuddin Balban
founded Nasriya College where the writer of ‘Tabakat-I-nassiri’
Mihaj-us-siraj was the Principal. He patronized scholars. Theologists,
Astronomists, mathematician made his capital city equivalent to
Bukhra and Baghdad. His court was adorned by Amir Khasru and
other learned men. Prince Mohammad the learned son of Balban
headed a literary society included Musicians, dancers, actors and
poets. Amir Khasru, Amir Hassan, Sk Badruddin Arif, Sayyid Maula
electrified the literary atmosphere. Jalaluddin Khalji was a man of
literary taste. Amir Khasru was the librarian of his imperial library.
Alauddin Khalji established a big Madrasha to the Hauz-i-Khas.
Firirsta says, “Palaces, mosques, universities, baths, and meusolia
forts of all kinds of private and public buildings seemed to rise as if
by magic.” Ziauddin Barni says, “Delhi was the great rendezvous for
all the most learned and erudite personages” Md. Bin Tughluq was
personally a man of scholar and well versed in mathematics, logic,
astronomy, science. He founded many Madrassahs in Delhi. Feroz
shah Tughlu established a residential school named as Madrasah-i-
Firuzshahi. Firoz constructed 30 to 4o schools, mosques, college and
monasteries in his empire. The Sultan destroyed the Jawalamukhi
temple at Nagarkot and ordered the pundits to decipher 1300
manuscripts preserved there. He encouraged the discovery of fossils
in the Sivaliks. The sultan built three palaces to encourage the
learned men and learning. In the palaces of graph he held learned
assemblies. Ziauddin Barnai and Siraj afif adorned his court.
Jalauddin Rumi was a famous teacher and poet. Under the Lodi
64 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
dynasty Agra became the center of learned men. Urdu became the
common language for Turks, Persians, Indian Hindus and Afghans.
Features of Education During the Sultanate
Education during the Turko-Afgan era had a strong theological
flavour and religious outlook. But gradually a secular trend came
into existence. Hindu and Muslim learning survived side by side.
The rulers of the sultanate patronized the Islamic learning and
the Hindu rulers developed enthusiasm to encourage Hindu learning.
Vijoynagar kingdom showed its keenness to spread Hindu learning.
Mithila and Nadia flourished as the centers for learning.
The decline of the Delhi sultanate led to the growth of regional
kingdom and provincial culture. Education and culture flourished in
Vijoynagar and Bahmani kingdom.
The Medieval period had offered some bonds of linguistic unity.
The regional languages got fast developed. Arabic and Persian are
used by both the communities. Muslims also had interest in learning
Sanskrit. Muslim rulers patronized Urdu and Persia as official
language.
Higher education was scattered through Madrasha and Muqtab
spread primary education.
Another feature of education during this age was cultural
integration. Turko Afghan ruler patronized the culture of Central
Asia and India. In Bengal the integration came under the rule Illyas
Shahi and Hossain Shahi dynasty.
Education Under Mughal Dynasty
Babur, the founder of Mughal dynasty, was an accomplished
scholar in Arabic. Abul Fazl mentioned that he was a poet of a
collection of Turki poems and he had Persian composition. Mirza Md
Haider says Babur invented a style of verse called ‘Mubaiyan’. He
composed a book entitled ‘Muffasal’. Babur was skilled in music. He
initiated a style of hand writing called ‘The Baburi hand’ and wrote
a copy of Koran in this hand writing. He wrote his autobiography
called ‘Tujuki Baburi’and wrote a famous book ‘Quanuni Humaun’
He founded a public works Department ‘Shuhrat I am’ for publishing
and construction work. He founded a Madrasha at Delhi where Sk
Hussain was a famous professor. A college was built at Chunar.
There was a famous school built on the bank of jamuna. Humayun’s
tomb was subsequently became a madrasah. Shershah built a
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 65
Madrasah at narnaul and personally visited colleges and associated
with the learned men. Akbar the great established a big college at
Fatepur Sikri and Agra. His experience on language learning was
known to all. Badauni, Manucci Catrou narrated that the Emperor
had a newborns reared up by dumb nurses and it was discovered
that the infants developed no language ability. The finding was that
language ability is a contribution of environmental stimulation and
scope of communication. He rejected the Persian method of reading
and accepted Indian method of writing followed by reading. The
Emperor ordered four daily exercises –alphabets, combinations, new
hemistich or distich and repetition of earlier lessons. Students were
taught in the order-Morality, arithmetic, accounts, Agriculture,
Geometry, Astronomy, Economics, Political science, Physics, Logic,
Natural philosophy, Abstract Mathematics, divinity and History.
He emphasized on student’s self-learning students understanding
and practical knowledge. Akbar ordered education for all of his
subjects irrespective of religion and caste. There was no religious
discrimination of in the appointment of teachers. There were many
books of Sanskrit translated into Persian or Hindi. Hazi Ibrahim
Sarhindi did the Atharva Veda into Persian and history of Kashmir
was written in Sanskrit by Shah Md. Sahabadi. Books were generally
classified as Science; History another classification was Poetry,
Astronomy, Geometry, Sufism, theology, Law, calligraphy. Akbar’s
reign witnessed lavish patronage for the development of education
and culture in the form of pensions, rewards, stipends and grants for
educational institutions. The glory of medieval education reached
to its zenith in the days of Akbar. Jahangir, son and successor of
Akbar was a great lover of books. Qutubuddin Md. Khan and Abdul
Rahim Mirza were his great tutors. He was inspired by the Babur’s
memories in original’ Tuzuk-I-Baburi and wrote his own Memoirs
Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri. Muktab Khan was his famous Librerian and
Farrukh beg, Mansur and Abdul Hassan were famous painters
who introduced animal style. Many learned men includinig Mirza
Ghiyas Beg, Muhmmad Khan, Naqib Khan and Nimatullah adorned
his court. Shah Jahan founded the Imperial College at Delhi.
Princess Jahanara founded a college at Agra. Paintings received
his encouragement and architecture was a special contribution
of shajahan. During his reign Lahore, Ahmedabad, Burhanpur,
jaunpur, sirhind and Ambala flourished as centers of learning.
Shajahan’s eldest son Dara shukoh translated Sanskrit works into
66 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Persian. Aurangzeb fostered Islamic learning and took steps for the
promotion of Islamic education. He repaired a Madrasha at Gujrat
and grants a Jagir to the college at Gujrat. He himself was well
educated and copied the Koran and managed his personal expenses
by selling the copies.
Special Features of Medieval Education
1. Aims of Education : Emphasis upon attaining a disciplined
and moral life and to lead a successful life was the aim of
education. The Prophet sought to bring about a settled social
life and well defined personal duties. Islamic education was
designed on the philosophy defined in the holy book Koran.
The aim of education was spiritual development and inclined
towards enlightenment from blind superstitious practices.
2. Curricular : The curriculum in the primary classes consists
of Reading, writing and arithmetic (3 Rs). There were different
stages of instruction in Maqtab - Forming letters on the ground,
Palm leaf practice for writing letters, interconnection of words
in sentences, addition and subtraction, and agricultural
counting. Reading of Kalima, suras of the Koran, poems
and anecdotes of saints were in the curricula. In Madrasah
curriculum consisted of grammar, Logic, Law, Theology,
sciences, Astronomy, Philosophy, Mathematics, Dialetics,
Literature, Hadis, geography, History, Music and medicine.
Akbar gave a secular outlook to education. He ordered that in
the schools of Sanskrit learning Vyakarana, Nyaya, Vedanta
and Mahavasya would be taught.
3. Vocational Education : In the medieval period traditional
vocational education continued to exist. Hindu weavers when
converted to Islam could not give up the family profession
and they tried to train the students of Madrashs. Vocational
training was based on productive crafts. Vocational training
was imparted mainly in the family unit. Trainees got training
from the master craftsmen and architects of Persia and Turkey.
Practical training under them made the trainees more skilled.
Feruz Tughluq arranged to provide vocational training for
his slaves. Akbar encouraged vocational education specially
crafts, architecture, paintings and sculpture.
4. Types of School : Throughout the Middle Ages Tols,
Chtuspathis and Pathshala were the educational institutions
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 67
for the Hindus. The Institutions for the Muslims were both
primary and higher. The Primary institution ‘Maktab’ is
derived from Arabic word ‘kutub’ means a place where writing
is taught. Maktabs were attached to mosques. Majority of the
children of a locality assembled in the Maktab and received
regular education. The child’s primary education was served in
maktabs where students were taught writing, reading, Quran,
Namaj or prayer, aritmatic, drafting, conversation and letter
writing. Institutions of secondary or higher education were
called Madrasahs, generally attached to Mosques or Tombs of
saintly persons. Madrasahs provided accommodation to both
teachers and students. Madrasahs were flourished at Agra,
Delhi, Ajmer, Lahore, jaunpur, Ahmedabad, and several other
places. Eminent scholars and famous teachers deliver lectures
in these centers.
5. Education of Women : Islam does not neglect the education
of women. Prophet had encouraged women to receive education.
Fatima, Hamida, Sofia, Maryam and Asihah were all learned
women. The social system during the medieval period
narrowed the scope of quantitative development of women
education. But qualitative excellence was there. Education
of the aristocrat women was provided in the Harem. Sultana
Raziya was well educated. Gulbadan Begam the daughter
of Babur wrote ‘Humayun Namah’. Akbar’s mother Hamida
Banu was a learned woman who founded a college. Nurjahan
and Mumtaz Mahal were well versed in Persian and Arabic
literature. Jahanara the well educated daughter of Sahajahan
composed her own epitaph. Aurangzeb’s daughter Jebunnesa
knew Persian and Arabic well and skilled in Calligraphy. Rani
Durgabati was a famous Learned Hindu Lady. Akbar founded
‘zenana’ school. Education of women in the medieval was not
fully neglected but it was limited in the aristocracy.
6. Methods of Teaching : In Maktabs, the methods of teaching,
was oral. The students were taught some portion of Quran by
cramming and memorizing. Later they were taught to write
alphabets. In Madrashsa lacture method was in practice.
Sometimes discussion method, analytical and inductive
methods were also considered. Monitorial system was in
practice. Reading was given more importance than writing.
Discourses were not so important as it was in the ancient
68 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
period. Akbar introduced an impressive method of teaching.
Narendra Nath Law stated in his book ‘Promotion of Learning
in India during the Mahmmadan rule’ “The boys were first
taught the Persian Alphabet along with accents and marks of
punctuation. As soon as this was mastered, which did not take
more than two days; they were taught the combination of two
letters. After a week, they had to read short lines of prose or
verse containing religious or moral sentiment, in which those
combinations frequently occurred. They must strive to read
these themselves with occasional assistance from the tutor.
Then for a few day, the master proceeded with teaching a new
hemistich, and in a very short time, the boys could read with
fluency. The teacher gave the young students four exercises
daily, the alphabet, the combinations, a new hemistich or
distich and repetition of what they had read before. This
method proved very successful, so that what usually took those
years was now accomplished in a few months.”
7. Teacher-People Relation : Teachers were held great esteem
and enjoyed a unique position in society. They regarded pupils
as their sons and daughters. Pupils would revere them and
serve them in many ways. Service to teachers was deemed as
the sacred duty of pupils. Students residing in hostel attached
to Madrashas were paid individual attention by the teachers.
The teachers were intimately related with local socio-religious
life. Both the teachers and students represented themselves
in the social programmes where the teachers performed
priestly duties. There was trust and honour in their reciprocal
activities. Moulavi was a local resident. He was a guardian
of all children residing in hostel. The teacher coming from
distant places resides in a village house closed to the Mosques.
The village folk generously donated for the maintenance of
the Maktab. The maintenance of the institutions for higher
learning was caused by the state. State endowments used to
maintain boarding and lodging. Grownup students helped in
the management of boarding houses with the guidance of the
teachers. Teachers rendered their services for the welfare of
the students residing in the boarding. Students were closed to
the teachers and their parental relationship created bondage
among themselves. The teacher-pupil relationship was sound
in the medieval period as it was in ancient times.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 69
8. Discipline : Islam defined some socio-moral values, sociopolitical
duties and some behavioral patterns of life to be
practiced in day to day life. A fixed routine of daily prayers,
pre-fixed timings of works and studies made the students
disciplined. They followed certain injunctions against eating,
dressing and drinking. Self-discipline and auto-learning helped
the pupils to lead a disciplined life. Students were habituated
to work on their own and lead a secured life. Parental attitude
of teachers towards students guaranteed and ensured
student’s discipline. Discipline, moral conduct and humility
were regarded as the essential attributes of students. Corporal
punishment was in practice. Students those who made guilty
were caned, whipped or beaten. In Islamic literature severe
punishment was referred for the disturbing elements. On the
other hand medals, gifts and rewards were also given to the
deserving students.
9. Moral Education : Islamic philosophy demands of moral
and disciplined life of the believer. So in Islamic education
morality has been given emphasis. The prophet says, “ acquire
knowledge, because he who acquires it in the world of the ‘Lord’,
performs an act of piety; he who speaks of it, praises the lord;
who seeks it, adores God; who dispenses instructions, bestows
alms; and who imparts it to its fitting objects performs an act of
devotion to God.” Knowledge, according to Prophet Mahammad,
dissuades the learners from temptation and leads to goodness
and happiness. The value of ethical training and all laws of
morals are recorded in the Koran. Moral life is an essential part
for the success in life. Divine knowledge and saintly life play
a dominant part in imparting morality in human life. Human
beings those who are morally strong can differentiate between
vice and virtue, right and wrong and good and bad. Al Ghazzali
throws light on the moral training to the youth. Students
must acquire proper posture of sitting, walking, reading and
sleeping. They must be submissive, disciplined and respectful
to the teachers and elders. They practiced the proper way of
talking and paying respect to elders. This disciplinary concept
of life determined the essence of morality.
10. Cultural Synthesis : The traditional Indian culture and
Islamic culture co-existed long and the outcome was the
synthesis in every field. In the field of education interaction
70 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
and synthesis of these two powerful cultures is worthy to be
mentioned. Bhaktism, Sufism and Vaisnavism were the result
of such cultural interaction. Understanding in the field of
religious activities produced a secular outlook and Emperor
Akbar was successful in preaching eclecticism. Literary
interaction gave new outlook in regional culture patterns
vernaculars got a definite shape. Translation of Arabic and
Persian literature into Sanskrit and Sanskrit literature into
Arabic developed the scope of literature. Literary interaction
and synthesis of Hindi and Arabic led to the development of
Urdu a new common language. Though Islam is known to have
no caste divisions, casteism in Indian context influenced the
rulers and upper stratum of military personnel to introduce
court education and to enjoy royal privileges. The ‘purdah’
system of Islam influenced the Hindu society and thus affected
the tradition of women’s education.
The cultural synthesis had also a positive influence in the
field of education. Islamic education was mainly theological but
the Hindu Pathsala had been more realistic and utilitarian. The
education of Maktab and Madrashs gradually acquired this realism
and utilitarianism .The two parallel system of education gradually
developed some new concept such as ‘free’ education, practices of
strict discipline and vocational education. Akbar adopted pedagogical
principles mainly the Indian methods of teaching. Literary interaction
caused several positive impacts on traditional Indian education and
architecture, fine arts, and music got a happier synthesis. But the
decline of the Mughal Empire caused a great educational and cultural
vacuum. The indigenous Hindu and Islamic systems of education
that existed but were carcasses of what they had once been. The
western missionaries appeared into the arena of education and a
modern era of Indian education began.
Education of Bengal During the British Period
™™Early Missionary Activities : The Early Missionaries
provided a link between medieval and modern education. There
were some special characteristics of missionary’s educational
enterprise. They established certain types of institutions. They
are Parochial schools, Orphanages, Secondary schools, Teacher
Training schools, Clergymen’s college etc. Schools were first
established in Kuthis for the European children. Indigenous
type of elementary education attracted the attention of the
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 71
missionaries. They filled the vacuum in education caused by the
decline of Mughal dynasty. Missionary’s school first broke down
educational caste barrier. The missionaries first introduced
the use of press and widespread use of vernaculars came into
existence for mass education. History, Geography and general
science were included in the traditional curriculum. Time table,
gradation in evaluation, school regulations, vocational education
and new cultural elements all these elements were brought by
the missionaries. The missionaries of the 17th and 18th centuries
paved the way for the introduction of western education.111
Missionary schools got reorganized and modern school’s features
were noticed. The main aims of these schools were religious. So
teaching of Bible was essential. School time table was followed
and Sunday was a closed day. New curriculum was framed. The
world History and Geography were included in the curriculum. The
missionaries had arranged for publication of printed books. So books
were easily available and cost became low. The Portuguese can be
regarded as the founders of modern system of education in India.
They established Jesuit College for higher education and imparted
education in local language. The Dutch extended their commercial
activities at Chinsura and Hooghly and established schools for
the education of the children of Company’s servants. The Indian
students were also allowed to take admission in these schools. The
French and the Danes established their schools and tried to spread
education in our country.
™™Policy of Warren Hastings : The Company’s Supreme council
in India under the leadership of Warren Hastings adopted a
new policy to increase British influence showing patronage to
traditional learning. Hastings adopted a policy of ‘benevolent
neutrality’ in social, religious and cultural affairs. Missionaries
were given permission to spread western education. At the same
time revival of traditional Hindu and Muslim education was also
given more emphasis to create competent Hindu and Muslim
Law –interpreters in courts presided over by English Judges.
Warren Hastings established the Calcutta Madrash in 1781
where Islamic Theology, Law, Logic, Grammar, Arithmetic and
Arabic language were taught.
Hindu theology, Law, Grammar, Medicine and Sanskrit language
111. Banerjee, J. P.(1985) Education In India, Kolkata: Central Library Publication, p.p.
9-10.
72 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
were taught at Benaras Sanskrit College established by Jonathan
Duncan in 1791 and later at Calcutta Sanskrit College established in
1824. Hastings patronized the translation of members of the society
were Darakanath Tagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Ram Kamal
Sen, Kashinath Mallick and other eminent persons of Bengal. H.H.
Wilson, William hunter, James Prinsep and Charles Grant fostered
the literary activities of the society. The valuable collections of
manuscripts, Inscriptions and coins preserved in the society help
the researchers to find out the glorious tradition of the past.112
™™Contribution of Serampur Trio : William Carey, William
Ward and Marshman were called the Serampur Trio. Serampur
press was founded in 1800 A.D. Carey and Marshman established
Calcutta Benevolent Institutions in 1810. The Serampore Trio
established more than 20 schools by 1815. Serampur College
was established in 1818 where Western arts and sciences were
taught. Serampur Trio immensely contributed towards the
growth of Bengali language and literature and spread western
education in Bengal. They contributed for the development
of Bengali Grammar and literary translation. Carey wrote a
Bengali Dictionary containing 85000 words including derivatives
and syntax.
™™Charles Grant Observation : Charles Grant an officer studied
the problems of education in India and wrote his observation
report to the British Parliament about the deplorable condition of
India and suggested to spread education to improve the behavior
pattern of the Indians. English education was needed to catch up
with the latest trends in literature, science, philosophy, religion
and other subjects. He suggested appointing English Teachers
first and later they might be replaced by the Indian Teachers.
The British Parliament gradually accepted the suggestions
and implemented the same. In 1813 when the Charter Act
was published the responsibility of the British Govt. to spread
education was noticed.
™™The Charter Act of 1813 : The Charter Act of 1813 was
published due to the efforts of Charles grant. So he was regarded
as the father of modern education in India. The Charter Act of
1813 revolutionized the traditional system of education and now
it became a responsibility of the company to spread education.
112. Banerjee, J. P.(1985) Education In India, Kolkata: Central Library Publication,
p.p. 9-10.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 73
The clause No 43 of the charter directed the company to spend at
least one Lakh rupees on education.
The provision of Charter Act related to educational grant
recognized the duty of the Govt. and a system of educational grant
first introduced. Moreover, the clause opened a new chapter of
controversy regarding the type and medium of instruction. The
controversy was between oriental and occidental. The oriental school
led by Mr. Prinsep had derived inspiration from warren Hastings,
Minto, Metcaffe and Wilson and others of Asiatic Society. According
to them oriental culture was no inferior to western culture. Hence
the company would spend the sanctioned rupees for the development
of oriental learning through the oriental classical languages.
Occidental School called the oriental literature worthless and
full of superstition. So they opined that western knowledge should
be directly introduced through the medium of English and the
natives would be taught Western science. They wanted to produce
Govt. employees at reasonable cost would best be possible through
English education through English language. The Orientalist and
Occidentalist group of G.C.P.I. established in 1823 could not have
uniformity in executing the educational activities.
™™Macaulay Minute : Lord Macaulay was appointed the Law
Member of the council of Governor General in 1834 when the
controversy between the Orientalist and Occidentalist had
become more violent. He was appointed the Chairman of the
General committee of Public Instructions of Bengal by Lord
William Bentick who gave him to solve the controversy. He
advocated western education through the medium of English.
He proposed to stop the grants of Oriental Institutions and save
the unnecessary expenditure. He wanted to utilize the grant of
one lakh properly in opening English schools and developing
the Western system of education in India. Macaulay made a
declaration stating that the British Government’s main aim to
spread European literature and science among Indians and the
money granted will be spent for that purpose. He also stated that
Oriental literature will not be published in future.
™™Resolution of Lord William Bentick : Lord William Bentick
accepted the proposal of Lord Macaulay and took a resolution
declared first by the British Govt. in 1835. It was stated in the
resolution that the main object of the British Govt. ought to be
the promotion of European literature and science among the
74 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
natives of India. Promotion of Western sciences and arts was
acknowledged as the avowed object.
™™William Bentinck Passed the Following Orders in
Resolution: First : His Lordship-in-Council is of the opinion
that the great object of the British Government ought to be the
promotion of European literature and science among the natives
of India; and that all the funds appropriated for the purpose of
education would be best employed on English education alone.
Second : His Lordship-in –Council directs that all the funds
which these reforms will leave at disposal of the committee be
henceforth employed in imparting to the native population a
knowledge of English literature and science through the medium
of English language; and his Lordship-in –Council requests the
committee to submit to Government with all expedition, a plan
for the accomplishment of this purpose.113
The Wood’s Despatch (1854) In 1854 the chairman of the Board
of control was sir Charles wood. So the declaration of education
policy of the company was named as ‘Wood’s Despatch’. The main
recommendations of the dispatch are as follows:
1. The dispatch clearly accepted the responsibility of the British
Government for education in India.
2. The main aim of education policy was to raise intellectual
fitness and moral character of the educands.
3. Wood recognized the usefulness of oriental literature like
Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian.
4. The Despatch pointed out the importance of English as the
medium of instruction.
5. The Despatch recommended for the establishment of the
Department of Public instruction. Its highest official should
be designated as the Director of Public Instruction assisted by
Deputy Director, Inspectors and Deputy Inspectors of schools.
6. The Despatch suggested for the setting up of the universities at
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and if necessary at other places.
There were other recommendations also.
In 1859 Lord Stanley supported the Despatch of 1854. Due to
Stanley’s Despatch, the provincial Governments were made responsible
for primary education. By 1871, the department of education came
113. Aggarwal, J.C. (1996) Teacher and education in a developing Society, New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House, pvt. Ltd.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 75
under the direct control of provincial Governments. During the
regime of Lord Mayo the Provincial Governments were authorized to
make expenditure on education for its development.114 The Provincial
Governments were empowered during reign of Lord Lyton. All these
developments reflected in the report of Hunter commission.
™™Hunter Commission : Lord Ripon wanted to assess the
development and to remove the defects of education in India.
He appointed The Indian Education commission in India on
February 3, 1982 under the Chairmanship of William Hunter.
The Aims and Objectives of the Commission
™™To assess the position of Primary education and to suggest for its
reforms.
™™To evaluate the contribution of the Missionaries in the field of
education.
™™To find out the position of the Government Institutions and
whether it should be allowed to continue.
™™To assess the utility of Grant- in- aid system and to find out
whether the private enterprise needs to receive encouragement
from the Government.
™™To study the problems of education and to suggest the remedies
for its improvement.
Although the commission worked very hard for full ten months
and collected more than 300 suggestions from people of our
country, it could not give any new ideas of reform. The standard
of education fell down due to paucity of funds. Bookish knowledge
was overemphasized. The sole purpose of education of students was
to pass the examination. They were not given practical experiences
useful to their real life situation. Nothing useful to practical life was
taught in the existed system. Indians were not aware of the situation.
Shimla Education Conference (1901) Lord Curzon convened
a conference at Shimla for initiating reforms of Indian education.
Various aspects of Primary, secondary and Higher education were
covered for discussion in the conference and the following policies
were declared.
™™British Government will control the system of education.
™™Public Institutions will be established as the model institution of
private institutions.
114. Chandra, S.S. (2003). Indian Education Development, Problems, Issues and
Trend, Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
76 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
™™The central Govt. will conduct and control over Indian education
particularly University education.
™™Qualitative development of education was given more emphasis.
™™The Government will spend more funds for the development of
education.
In Shimla conference Indian representatives were not allowed
and the Government wanted to change the system to abolish the
national feelings and national sentiment.
Indian University Commission (1902) Lord Curzon appointed
Indian University Commission to make university education
qualitatively expanded. The commission aimed at laying down the
procedures by which the standard of higher education may go up.
It suggested ways and means for the organization and working of
Indian university. The Senate and Syndicate are suggested to be
reorganized. Managing Committee was formed in every college.
Suitable recommendations were made to change the curriculum of
higher education. On the basis of the suggestion of Indian University
Commission Lord Curzon decided to frame a new educational policy
and Indian University Act was passed on March 11, 1904. The Act
highlighted that the courses are absolutely bookish and students try
to pass the examination by cramming the material. Industrial and
technological education is neglected.
Gokhale’s Bill 1911 Gokhale Bill was introduced on March 16,
1911 in the Legislative Assembly. The object of the bill was to provide
free and compulsory elementary education in the country. The main
suggestion of the bill was that the Primary education should be made
compulsory for the boys and girls of the age groups of 6 to 10. The
defaulting guardians should be penalized for non-compliance of the
provisions of sending their wards to recognized primary schools. Now
the RTE of 2009 clarified the right of the children of the age group of
6 to 14 a fundamental right of free and compulsory education in 21
-A and guardian’s compulsion was stated in 51-A as the fundamental
duties to arrange education of their wards.
Sadler Commission 1917-19 The Commission under the
Chairmanship of Sir M.E. Sadler of 1917-1919 drew attention to the
following defects of Secondary education:
1. The secondary schools are suffering from lack of useful
educational tools and equipments.
2. Secondary education had become over influenced by Public
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 77
examination.
3. The quality of secondary education has fallen down to a
deplorable degree.
4. The secondary schools are not visited and inspected regularly.
So suggestions for its improvement were not received.
5. Suitable subjects for intermediate classes are not included in the
curriculum of secondary education. The commission suggested
that secondary education at the time neither prepared students
for University education nor did it create self-dependence in
youths. So the secondary education should be put on the right
track for showing a desirable direction to University.
Hartog Report of 1928 The Simon Commission appointed a sub-
Committee with Sir Philip Hartog as the Chairman to enquire into
the growth of education in British India and potentialities of progress.
The committee was not satisfied with the progress of secondary
education as much attention was paid to higher education in between
1882-1922. The Committee found that out of every 100 students in
class 1 only 19 pupils read in class IV in 1925-26. The committee
pointed out about the ‘Wastage and stagnation’. It suggested for the
introduction of varied curricula in the middle schools and provision
for alternative courses particularly for industrial and commercial
carreers.
Wood–Abbott Report of 1937 Abbott report suggested for the
development of educational provision of girls and women. The main
recommendations are:
Infant classes should be entrusted to trained teachers and women
education should be given paramount importance.
1. The education of children of primary schools should be based
upon the interest of the children. Concentration on narrow
bookish leaning should not be entertained.
2. The curriculum in the middle classes should be closely related
to the interest of the children.
3. The medium of instruction will be the mother tongue and
English will be a compulsory second language.
4. Attention to be paid for teaching fine arts and qualified trained
teachers to be appointed.
5. The pre-service education course of teachers for primary and
middle schools should be of three years without any gap.
78 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
6. Vocational education will be continued parallel with the general
education.
7. The Government should establish a vocational training college
working in close association with an ordinary training college.
Wardha Scheme of 1937 Gandhi initiated experimentation on
education both in India and in Africa and formulated his valuable
thought. He finalized and adopted a scheme of education which
was published in the columns of ‘Harijan’ in the year of 1937. The
scheme containing the main features was placed in the All India
National Education Conference on the 22nd and 3rd October,
1937. Mahatma Gandhi himself presided over the meeting of the
conference. Education Ministers of seven provinces attended the
conference. The scheme was popularly known as the Wardha scheme
or ‘Basic education scheme’ A committee was unanimously formed in
the conference and appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir
Hussain to prepare a detailed syllabus of this scheme of education.
The committee submitted its report containing detailed syllabus and
other suggestions. A new scheme of education for the development
of body, mind and soul was developed giving emphasis on the
development of 3Hs-Head, Hand and Heart. Suggestions were covered
on Supervision, Examination system, teacher’s training. Gandhi
again submitted his scheme covering Pre-basic, Basic, and Post Basic
education and adult education in Sevagram conference in 1945. He
suggested pre-basic education for the children less than six years of
age, basic education for the age group of six years to fourteen years
and post basic education was for the students of fourteen to eighteen
years. University education will aim at national and social needs.
Community improvement was given priority on adult education.
Basic education was signified by the term ‘Basic’ because it will
make the bases of life. The scheme intimately related with the basic
needs of the children. It gave emphasis on the drawing out of the best
potentialities in child and man. It had given emphasis on the ancient
tradition and culture of our country. The scheme was meant for the
common standard of education for the common people irrespective of
colour, caste, creed and religion.
Ministry of education, Government of India, stated in a pamphlet,
“ This basic education, is not only a valuable and integral part of the
priceless legacy that Mahatma Gandhi left the nation, but embodies
certain educational ideas and principles of great significance that
have been welcomed and endorsed by distinguished and discerning
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 79
educationists in India and abroad.”115 The special feature which drew
the attention of the people was the basic education advocated free,
compulsory and universal education to the students of age group of
7 to 14 years which was reflected later in Article 45.
Sargent Report of 1944 Sir John Sargent, the then Educational
Adviser to the Government of India was asked to prepare a
memorandum on post war educational development in India and
the report published was entitled by the C.A.B.E.as “Post war
Educational Development in India. The report aimed at different
points to attain the educational standard of contemporary England
with in a period of 40 years. It provides for : 116
1. A reasonable provision of pre-primary education for children
between 3 and 6 years of age in nursery schools.
2. Universal, compulsory and free primary or basic education for
all children between the ages of 6 and 14 divided in junior
basic (6-11) and Senior Basic (11-14).
3. Secondary or high school education for six years for selected
children in the age group of 11-17.
4. Two types of schools-Academic High School providing
instruction in Arts and Science and Technical High Schools
specializing in applied sciences industrial and commercial
subjects.
™™University education including three years degree course
and one year intermediate course to be transferred to High
schools
™™Technical, commercial and Art Education and four types of
institutions.
5. Junior Technical or Industrial Institution or Trade school with
a two year course after the senior Basic stage.
6. Technical or Industrial Institution or Trade School with a two
year course after the Junior Basic stage.
7. Technical High school with a six years course after the Junior
Basic stage.
8. Senior Technical Institution and University technological
departments.
9. Adult education both vocational and non-vocational for nine
115. Dash, B.N. and Dash Nibedita.(2009).Thoughts and Theories of Indian
Educational thinkers, New Delhi: Dominant Publisher and Distributers, p. 130.
116. Ramat, P. L. (1981) History of Indian Education, Agra: Ramprasad and sons.
80 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
crore illiterates.
10. Full provisions for the training of teachers for pre-primary,
Junior Basic and Senior Basic schools.
11. Special schools for children suffering from mental and physical
handicaps.
12. A proper educational administrative system with a stern
Education Department at the center.117
Education of Bengal after Independence During the British
period the main aim of education was equated with transmission
of bookish knowledge but after the independence there has been a
rethinking regarding the function of education.
Education is no longer confined to cognitive aspects. The main
objectives are now considered to develop the total personality and
to raise the capabilities of the individual. After independence the
system of education was reoriented to adjust to the changing needs
and aspirations of the society. The significant role of education
highlighted was to bring national progress and development. Several
Commissions and committees reviewed the system of education .The
most notable commissions are:
1. The University Education Commission (1948-49)
2. The Secondary Education Commission (1952)
3. The Education Commission (1964-66)
The University Education Commission (1948-49)
After the attainment of freedom educational reconstructions were
considered strong weapons to fulfill the new hopes and to solve the
new problems. The University Education commission was appointed
under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan who suggested the
following.
™™The Curriculum : The commission suggests that knowledge
should be considered as one whole. The courses of studies are
only means of composite knowledge and knowledge should be
cultivated entirely. So Integrated and diversified curriculum was
given emphasis.
™™Professional Education : The Commission suggested for
improving vocational education, teacher’s training, engineering,
technology and medical education. The students of commerce
117. Chandra, S.S. (2003) Indian Education Development, Problems, Issues and Trend,
Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 81
should be given practical instructions in institutions of trade and
commerce.
™™Women Education : The commission suggested for the
greater facilities to be provided for promoting women education
and experienced teachers to be appointed for guiding women
education. Women should be well informed about their rights
and duties towards society and nation. Special facilities should
be provided to women in co-education schools.
™™Religious Education : The commission suggested starting
instructions in the institutions with self-meditation every day.
Biographies of great leaders should be taught to first year
students, essential of all religions to second year students
and the third year students should be taught the essentials of
philosophies and problems of religions.
™™The University Education Commission: suggested for
promoting education in the field of medicine, Engineering and
technology. It Suggested Sanskrit and other regional languages
as the medium of instruction following English as the second
language. The Commission’s great achievement was its
suggestions for the establishment of Rural Universities.
™™Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) : After the
attainment of freedom a new era started in the history of education
when the Secondary Education Commission recommended some
revolutionary steps for the improvement of Secondary and higher
education. The main aim of the Commission was to develop
democratic citizenship, improvement of vocational efficiency,
development of Personality and development of qualities for
leadership.
Major Recommendations of the Commission
New organizational pattern The new organizational structure
of education should commence after a four or five years period of
Primary or Junior Basic Education. It will include the Senior Basic
or Junior Secondary stage of three years and the higher secondary
stage of four years.
The present intermediate stage should be replaced by the Higher
Secondary stage of four years duration and one year of the present
Intermediate being included in it. The degree course in University
should be of three years duration.
Multipurpose schools should be established to provide varied courses
82 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
of study to fulfill the interest attitude and abilities of the students.
Special facilities should be provided to rural schools for
agricultural education.
The recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission
brought revolutionary changes in Secondary Education. General,
vocational and multipurpose schools were established in Bengal.
Recommendations on Methods of teaching, adoption of diversified
curriculum, Objective based evaluation with symbolic marking.118
School discipline and direction for school management are some
of the effective steps for the qualitative development of Secondary
Education of Bengal and India as well.
Indian Education Commission (1964-1966)
Education Commission of 1964-66 was known under the name
of its chairman Dr. D.S. Kothary as Kothary Commission which
was appointed to advise the Government of India on the national
pattern of education and on the general principles and policies
for development of education at all stages and in all respects. The
Commission submitted its report under the head ‘Education and
National Development’ clearly reflected the role of education in
national development. The opening sentence of the report is, “the
destiny of India is being shaped in her class rooms. This, we believe,
is no more rhetoric”
The Commission adopted some major programmes to ensure the
quality of education raising the economic, social and professional
status of teachers. The goals of education were defined as to-
1 Increase productivity
2 Achieve social and national integration
3 Strengthen democracy
4 Accelerate the process of modernization
5 Cultivate social, moral and spiritual values The Educational
Structure proposed by the Commission:
The educational structure as proposed was followed in the Bengal
Province. The new structure was as the following-
™™One to three years of pre-school education
™™A primary stage of 7 to 8 years divided into a lower primary stage
of 4 to 5 years and a higher primary stage of 3 or 2 years
118. Aggarwal, J.C. (1996) Teacher and education in a developing Society, New Delhi:
Vikas Publishing House, pvt. Ltd.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 83
™™A lower secondary stage of 3 or 2 years
™™A higher secondary stage of 2 years
™™Vocational education at higher secondary stage of 1 to 3 years
™™A higher education stage of 3 years and research work of varying
duration
Other Recommendations
™™Age of admission to class 1 not to be less than six
™™First public examination will come at the end of ten years of
schooling
™™New higher secondary course will begin in class xi and instituted
by the classes xi and xii. The existing integrated higher secondary
education classes ix, x, and xi will be continued until class xii is
added.
™™Vocationalization at secondary stage at two points at the end of
class vii and at the end of class x will prepare the young persons
for employment.
™™The first ten years of schooling should cover a primary stage of
seven or eight years and a lower secondary stage of three or two
years providing a course of general education.
™™Ten years schooling should cover pre-primary, primary, lower
secondary and secondary stage and two years duration course
will cover higher secondary education.
™™Free text books to be provided at primary stage
™™Residential facilities in secondary schools should be provided
™™The education of the backward classes in general and of the tribal
pupil in particular is a major programme of equalization anf of
social and national integration.
™™Moral and religious education will be imparted with the help of
social, moral and spiritual values.
™™Co-curricular activities should be organized in secondary stage to
take up interest of the pupil.
™™Evaluation is a continuous process and it is an integral part of
education to achieve the objectives of education.
™™The commission recommended a rapid expansion of secondary
education. The 10 plus 2 scheme was not followed in all states.
Bihar decided to revert to the 10 year schools. Assam introduced
84 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
2 year pre-University education.119 There were 3 distinctive
opinions about the location of these middle two years. a) A separate
course in secondary schools, separate provision in degree colleges
c) independent 2 years colleges.120
Two years college degree introduced in community colleges and
after long controversy the 10 plus 2 plus 3 scheme was introduced in
Bengal. Students having honours in any subject have to continue 3
years degree.
Implementation of Basic Education in Secondary Schools in
West Bengal
The National Education movement during 1937 proposed a
national pattern of education propounded by M. K. Gandhi. It was
expected that the national consciousness in education determined
the nature and pattern of the future national education. Gandhi
wanted to establish a ‘Sarvodaya’ Swamaj which would be casteless,
classless, and egalitarian society based on non-violence. As a part
of ‘Sarvodaya’ Gandhi planned for universal, free and compulsory
education to bring out physical, mental and spiritual development.
For the better society in future a better citizen is required. Basic
education which is meant education for life and living through socially
useful productive work will be a strong weapon a true well balanced
individual for the better society. The schools will be a place for work,
experimentations and discoveries through qualities of good social
citizenship will be developed. Education can be regarded as a strong
medium to integrate the national aspirations and ideals with the
system of education. All round development of inner potentialities,
development of love for Indian culture and heritage and attainment
of ‘Sarvodaya’ were the aims of Basic education. Earning livelihood
after completion of the Basic education was given more emphasis.
The scheme of Basic Education became very popular and during
the national movement of education in Bengal Gandhian pattern of
education was introduced. Education in Primary and Secondary stage
in Bengal became craft centric and production oriented. National
consciousness was a rapid expansion through Basic education in
Secondary stage. Plantation of modern western education in a good
soil of Bengal completed earlier in the 19th century. The scheme
119.Govt. of India, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, Report of the Indian Education
commission(194-66)
120. Banerjee, J. P.(1985) Education In India, Kolkata: Central Library Publication,
p.247.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 85
of Basic Education which was very popular and introduced in the
Secondary Schools of Rural Bengal before the independence was as
follows:
™™Free and compulsory education equally for boys and girls from 7
plus to 14 plus.
™™Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction.
™™There would be a craft in the center of education. The craft would
be selected on the basis of the needs of the society.
™™Experimental attitude would be developed while handling the
craft.
™™Education of the child should be closely related to the village life
and real life situation.
™™The teachers should be properly trained.
™™The curriculum would consist of Basic craft ii) Mother tongue iii)
Mathematics iv) Social studies v) General Science vii) Art viii)
Hindi ix) Home Science x) Physical Education.
Features of Basic Education
Free and compulsory education up to the age group of 7 to 14
years.121
Combination the Primary Education with secondary Education
and “English-less Matriculation” with mother tongue as the medium
of Instruction.
Nayee-Talim Education on Gandhian Line
Mahatma Gandhi suggested a new method of teaching which is
called Nayee Taleem. Gandhi realized the needs of the children and
the Teaching-learning process. On his return to India from South
Africa he enunciated that the system of education continued in the
British period particularly education of children beginning with the
language and the syllabus based on Macaulays system was irrelevant
to the country’s context. This kind of education alienated the student
from Indian culture and tradition. The student community was not
well equipped with the vocational education. According to him true
education was to give students literary training through vocational
education. The new method of teaching or ‘New Talim’ was the
proper exercise of bodily organs and developing the intellect of the
children. The use of Takli- the spinning wheel is the symbol of the
121. Mondal, D. Nag, S. Sinha dasgupta, R. : Foundations and Development of
Education, Rita Publication, P.189.
86 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
discovery of wheel which gave a light on the evolution of human
civilization. Gandhi believed that the use and movement of Takli
would teach the student Science, arithmetic taking them in a real
life situation. The area where cotton is grown can teach them
climate and geographical features through practical experience.
Gandhi opposed the process of learning by teaching the alphabet.
He opined that the training by teaching the alphabet, reading and
writing hampers the intellectual growth. He categorically opposed
to teach the children alphabets till they had have the elementary
knowledge of History, Geography, mental arithmetic and art through
the practice and hands on activities. The mechanism of the use of
Takli is influential to a degree of learning. Takli simultaneously
train eyes, hands and mind. Students can develop skills using their
hands on a spinning wheel. They value the dignity of labour in life.
Their psychomotor domain development can go ahead. Nayee talim
can give self-supporting education and enhance the process of selflearning
or auto-learning by doing.
Nai Talim or New Education System Includes Four Stages
™™The first stage is the education for the community. The program of
education is extended to all members of society to lead a normal,
healthy and wealthy life.
™™The second stage is the pre-basic education of the children below
7 years of age. Education of this stage develops all the faculties
of life including morality, responsibility and behavior. Gandhiji
said, “The real education begins from conception as the mother
begins to take up the responsibility of the child. If a mother is
correctly instructed and prepared for coming responsibility, then
that will be the education of the child as well”.
™™The third stage is the education of eight years between 7 to 15
years. In the center of education of this stage there is a productive
work integrally related to other subject knowledge.
™™The fourth stage of education is the education of adolescent of
the age group of 15 to 18 years. Post basic education becomes
education for self-sufficiency and ideal village life.
Secondary Education and Gandhian Thought
Modern Secondary education starts after 4/5 years of Primary
education. The period of this education stretches for 7 to 8 years
of the adolescents of age group of 11 to 17/18 years. Secondary
education is the link between the elementary and higher education.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 87
Elementary education has to be structured to strengthen the
foundations of secondary education and secondary education has to
be structured to equip the students both in knowledge and skills to
join straightway in any part of economic life. Secondary education
should have a strong foundation for better higher education. The
foundation of secondary education should have strong vocational
component in the curricula and should be diversified and related to
real life situations. Foundation of secondary education as Gandhi
proposed will have to be laid through socially useful productive
work accent on practical which is an integral part of secondary
education. The vocational education spectrum will consist of a
range of knowledge, comprehension and skills training in practical
activities together with a study of the related sciences, framing and
other practical work. Vocationalization of education creates ample
scope for self-employment and self-dependence. Gndhiji wanted
to make secondary education community related and to make
community involvement possible; he gave emphasis on socially
useful productive works to be in the center of education system.
Facilities for secondary education will have to be expanded in rural
areas and the smaller towns to reduce the gap of scope of education
between rural and urban population. A positive effort has to be made
to ensure the integration of traditional and contemporary cultural
elements. The curricula of secondary education should be reflected
with the rich and varied cultural heritage of the country and the vast
cultural resources available in communities which are socially and
economically backward. To ensure physical development indigenous
games, rural sports and yoga exercises should be promoted.
The scheme of Elementary and Secondary education on Gandhian
line meant for an all round development of the child and man–body,
mind and spirit.
1. The scheme attempts to give minimum level of learning
acquired by an average student.
2. It is linked with the basic urges of human life.
3. It is correlated with the basic needs of human the child like
food, clothing, shelter, clean and healthy living.
4. Cultivation of aesthetic, cultural and social qualities is
necessary to be imparted in secondary education for all round
development.
5. Secondary education is to be intimately related to the basic
88 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
occupations of the community.
6. Education will have to be imparted through productive activity.
7. Mother tongue will be the medium of instruction emphasis
should be given upon Hindi.
8. Free and compulsory education up to the age group of 14 should
be ensured.
9. There will be a craft in the center of the whole process of
education with reference to the realities and needs of the
community.
10. Students must be acquainted with the social relevance of the
craft.
11. The correlated and integrated curriculum of secondary education
will include Basic craft, Mother Tongue, Mathematics, Social
studies, General Sciences, Art, Hindi, Home science and
Physical Education.
Meaning of Education According to Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi synthesized the three important philosophies-Idealism,
Naturalism and on the basis of these philosophies he defined the
meaning of education. In his words, “by education I mean an all
round drawing out of the best in child and man-body, mind and spirit.
Literacy is not the end of education nor even the beginning. It s one
of the means whereby man and woman can be educated. Literacy in
itself is not education.” Education according to him draws out and
stimulates the physical, intellectual and spiritual faculties of the
children. Gandhian education is characterized as the encompassing
the Head, Heart and Hand. ‘Man is neither mere intellect, nor gross
animal body, nor the heart or soul alone.” A proper and harmonious
combination of all required for making of the whole man and
constitutes the true economics of education. So Gandhian education
emphasizes to raise man to a higher order through full development
of the individual and the evolution of a ‘new man’.122
The Chief Tenants of Gandhi’s Educational Philosophy are:
™™Education should be craft centered
™™Education should be self-supporting and self sufficient
™™Education should be given in mother tongue
™™Education should be based on truth and Non-violence
122. Dash, B.N. and Dash Nibedita.(2009)Thoughts and Theories of Indian
Educational thinkers, New Delhi: Dominant Publisher and Distributers, P. 200.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 89
The Ideals of Gandhian Education are
™™Formation of class less society based on freedom and equality
and good social order which he called ‘Sarvadoya Samaj’.
™™Dignity of Labour
™™Development of sense of social responsibility
Aims of Education According to Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi’s concept of education has two fold aims-the ultimate
aim and the immediate aim. The ultimate aim of education is selfrealization
which is also the goal of educationThe immediate aims
of education as defined by Gandhiji are education for character
building, Service of humanity, quest for truth, self-less service,
developing independent thinking, community centered education,
cultural aims of education, Social and individual aims of education.
™™Education for Character Building : Character building is the
fundamental aim of education. Gnadhiji defined good education
in Harijan on 1st September, 1937 as “that which draws out and
stimulates the spiritual, intellectual and physical faculties of
children”.
“We also found that real education consists not in packing the
brain with so many facts and figures, not in passing examinations by
reading numerous books but in developing character.”123
™™Education as Service to Humanity : One of the immediate
aims of education is service to humanity. According to Gandhiji,
‘True education lies in serving others, oblige them without the
least feeling of one-apishness. The more nature you grow, the
more you realize this. A great deal of religious obligation on us is
fulfilled when we nurse the sick.’
‘I am not worried about your bookish learning so long as you
perform your duties and observe solemn ethical conduct. For me
carrying out the fundamentals of ethics is duty.’
™™Community Centered Education : Gandhi said that the school
is a miniature for of society. The main activity of the school should
be community centered. The values of co-operation, self- help,
and community service should be imparted in school education.
Students should learn how to live together and build society
on the edifice of Non-violence, Truth and co-operation in school
curriculum. So community centered education is an immediate
123. Speech at meeting of students, Marseilles, Young India, 1 October 1931 (CW
47,P.422),New Delhi, Publications Division,
90 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
aim of secondary education.
™™Cultural Aim of Education : According to Mahatma Gandhi the
aim of education is to preserve, enrich and transmit the ancient
heritage and glorious past. Gadhiji did not ignore the cultural
aspects as to him it is the foundation of personal behavior. The
rich cultural and spiritual heritage is to be taught to students
to refine the inner culture of mind and that could be reflected in
sitting, walking, speaking and showing respects to one another.
‘Culture’ means refinement of feelings and ‘education’ means
knowledge of literature. Education is a means and culture is
the end. The latter is possible even without education. For
instance, if a child is brought up in a truly cultured family, it will
consciously imbibe culture from its family, in our country at any
rate. Present-day education and culture have no connection with
each other.124
™™Social and Individual Aims of Education : Social and
Individual Aims of education could be fulfilled when education
leads to create a social order based on “Truth” and “Non-violence”.
Gandhiji stands on both individual and social development.
Both development is interdependent and should be the aim of
education.
™™Problem of Sex Education : The aim and objective of education
is to controlling or overcoming the sexual passion. True education
can enable students to distinguish between man and brute and
they differentiate the normal and sexual urge considered to be
harmful to them. The education of self-control to lead a normal
life is the aim of education.
™™Humility : One of the aims of education is to acquire humility.
The speech of Gandhiji at Dayaram Jethmal College, Karachi
highlighted this aim. He spoke, “with this introduction I would
like to tell the students, boys and girls, that humility is the
primary thing to be acquired. One who is not humble cannot put
one’s learning to proper use. What does it matter if he has to
obtain double first class or has to stand first? One does not achieve
everything by just passing an examination. It is possible that it
may help in securing a good job or a good marriage alliance. But,
if learning is to put to proper use, if it is to be used only for the
sake of service, one should acquire more and more humility every
124. Letter to Premabehn Kantak, 5 January, 1931 (CW 45, PP. 63-64), New Delhi,
Publications Division. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 91
day. No service is possible without it.”125
Curriculum on Gandhian Line The word ‘curriculum’ is derived
from a Latin word ‘Currere’ which means ‘to run to move quickly’.
But the present implication of the term is the ‘course of studies’
followed in the Educational Institutions. The curriculum includes
the experience that is designed to develop in pupils understanding,
attitudes, abilities, skills and interests to achieve the objectives of
the school.
“Curriculum includes the totality of experiences that a pupil
receives through the manifold activities that go on in the school, in
the class room, library, laboratory, workshop, playgrounds and in
the numerous informal contacts between teachers and pupils. In this
case the whole life of the school becomes the curriculum which can
tough the life of the students of all points and help in the evolution of
balanced personality” – Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53
The curriculum is always pre-planned a written ‘courses of study’
offered in a school. It is always purposive and intended ‘learning out
comes’ The education has to be used as a powerful tool for social,
political and economic development of a country. For this the Kothari
Education Commission of 1964-66 rightly remarked, ‘this destiny of
the nation is being shaped in her class room’.
A school curriculum is always the reflection of the needs and
aspirations of society. Curriculum by nature is a dynamic and
responsive to the present needs. The National Curriculum for
Primary and Secondary Education(2005) states that “a good school
curriculum, should aim at enabling the learners to acquire knowledge,
to develop concepts and skills, inculcate attitudes, values and develop
habits conductive to all-round development of their personality, and
which are commensurate with the social, cultural, economic and
environment realities at national and international level.”
The objectives of curriculum at secondary level followed by
Mahatma Gandhi are as here under. According to him a good school
curriculum aims to :
1. Create an atmosphere in which students will learn to think
critically and constructively.
2. To seek truth and solve problems through reasoning.
125. Speech at Dayaram Jethamal College, Karachi, 10 July. 1934 (CW58.p.164). New
Delhi, Publications Division. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of
India.
92 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
3. Help students in establishing values through intimate
acquaintance with humanities, arts, natural sciences, and
social sciences.
4. Develop the character of the students including integrity,
honesty, judgment, co-operation, friendliness and good will.
5. Develop an understanding of diverse cultural and social systems
of people and the country’s composite cultural heritage.
6. Develop language abilities and communication skills.
7. Develop creativity excellence and innovativeness in them
through crafts work.
8. Bring co-relation and integration of other subject knowledge
related to a craft.
According to Gandhiji, “It is true I have said that all instruction
must be linked with some basic craft. When you are imparting
knowledge to a child of 7 or 10 through this medium of an industry,
you should, to begin with, exclude all those subjects which can not
be linked with the craft”
“Our education has to be revolutionized. The brain must be
educated through the hand. Mere book knowledge does not interest
the child so as to hold his attention fully. The brain gets weary of
mere words, and the child’s mind begins to wander. The hands does
the things it ought no to do, the eye sees the things it ought not to
see, the ear hears the things it ought not to hear, and they do not do,
see, or hear, respectively, what they ought to. They are not taught to
make the right choice and so their education often proves their ruin.
An education which does not teach us to discriminate between good
and bad, to assimilate the one and eschew the other is a misnomer.”
The Gandhian curriculum consisted of the craft, the mothertongue
of the students, mathematics, social studies, natural science,
music and drawing the Hindustan”126
Mahatma Gandhi introduced the following subjects in the school
curriculum.
™™The Craft: There is a basic craft in center of the system of
education. The craft is certainly a productive one. The craft
may be the agriculture, gardening, metal work, weaving or
spinning, leather work suitable to local social, cultural and
economic condition. The productive craft makes the curriculum
126. Dr. Singh, Y. K.(2009) Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, New Delhi:
A B H Publishing Corporation, P.89.
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 93
activity centered and transform the schools into’ places of work,
experimentation and discovery’.
™™Mother Tongue: Gandhi emphasized on Mother tongue as the
medium of instruction. To bring clarity of thought and precision
of understanding of the subjects taught mother tongue is the best
medium. English language creates hindrance in understanding
the content. The students can enable to express themselves
effectively only through mother tongue. It is the best medium of
imparting the national heritage, tradition, values and culture.
™™Mathematics: Teaching of mathematics helps the students in
developing reasoning and numerical abilities. Mathematics was
introduced in the curriculum of Basic Education. Numerical and
Geometrical problems related to the craft work were taught in
the basic curriculum.
™™Social Studies: It was the combination of some subjects like
History, Geography, civics and Economics. All these subjects
enable students to understand the culture, heritage and nature
of the nation.
™™General Sciences: Subjects like Nature study, Botany, Zoology,
Chemistry, Astronomy, Hygiene, Physical culture and knowledge
of stars included in general science to give pupils an intelligent
and appropriate outlook on nature. General science enables
students to grow habits of accurate observation and testing
experiences by experiment.
™™Drawing and Music: The Zakir Hussain Committee opines that
the “aim of teaching drawing is to train the eyes to distinguish
various kinds of forms and colors, to develop the faculty of
appreciating the beautiful and to create an ability in the students
to make working drawing of objects and pictorial graphs.” Gandhi
says, “Physical drill, handicrafts, drawing and music should hand
in hand in order to draw best out of the boys and girls and create
in them a real interest in their tuition.” Hindustani: Hindustani
is the combination of Hindi and Urdu. It was made compulsory
in the curriculum.127
Methods of Teaching and Gandhian Views
Mahatma Gandhi suggested Activity based methods of teaching
for effective and purposeful learning. He emphasized on ‘Learning by
127. Dash, B.N.,&Dash N.(2009). Thoughts and Theories of Indian Educational
Thinkers.New Delhi, Dominant Publishers and Distributers, pp.130-32.
94 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
doing’. He proposed for the development of 3 Hs- ‘Head, Heart and
Hand’ He says, “I hold that true education of the intellect can only
come through a proper exercise and training of the bodily organs,
e.g., hands, feet, eyes, ears, nose, etc. In other words, an intelligent
use of the bodily organs in a child, provide the best and quickest way
of developing his intellect.But unless the development of the mind
and body goes hand in hand with a corresponding awakening of the
soul, the former alone would prove to be poor lop-sided affair. By
spiritual training I mean education of heart. A proper and all-round
development of the mind, therefore, can take place only when it
precedes paripassu with the education of the physical and spiritual
faculties of the child”.
“Literacy in itself is no education. I would therefore begin the
child’s education by teaching a useful handicraft and enabling it
to produce from the moment it begins its training. …..I hold that
the highest development of the mind and the soul is possible under
such a system of education. Only every handicraft has to be taught
not merely mechanically as is done today but scientifically... This
method is being adopted more or less completely wherever spinning
is being taught to workers. I have myself taught sandal making and
even spinning on these lines with good results. This method does
not exclude knowledge of History and Geography. But I find that
this best taught by transmitting such general information by word of
mouth. One imparts ten times as much in this manner as by reading
and writing. The signs of alphabet may be taught later when the
pupil has learnt to distinguish wheat from the chaff and when he
has somewhat developed his or her tastes. This is a revolutionary
proposal, but it saves immense labour and enables a student to
acquire in one year what he may take much longer to learn. This
means all round economy. Of course the pupil learns mathematics
whilst he is learning his handicraft.”128
“The method adopted in the institutions in India I do not call
education, I.e., drawing out the best in man, but a debauchery of
mind. It informs the mind anyhow, whereas the method of training
the mind through village handicrafts from the very beginning as the
central fact would promote the real, disciplined development of mind
resulting in conversation of the intellectual energy and indirectly
also the spiritual.”129
128. Harijan. 8-5-1937, p.10(CW.New Delhi, Publications Division).
129. Harijan. 31-7- ’37, p. 197 (CW.New Delhi, Publications Division).
Education in Ancient, Mediaval and British India 95
Role of the Teacher on Gandhis Views
Teacher is the friend, philosopher and guide of the students.
Teachers should have motherly feeling towards the students. So
Gandhiji pronounced the term ‘teacher’ as mother teacher. He
advocates devotion to the teachers ‘Guru Bhakti’ To him teacher is
a creator of knowledge, preserver of knowledge and destroyer the
weeds of ignorance like Lord Brahma, Vishnu and Mahaswara in
Hindu religion. He says, “Education of the heart could only be done
through the living touch of the teacher.” There should be intimate
relation and personal touch between the teacher and the taught.
Gandhiji suggested that if the best flowers among mankind take
to teaching, society is abundantly enriched , their fragrance bond
beauty are then made the best use of it. Therefore, teachers should
develop such character, which will help them to elicit devotion from
the student.
Character building education is not possible if devotion to teacher
is not shown by the students. A teacher should have devotion and
love to his service. He should be role model to the students. Gandhiji
says,“ Woe to the teacher who teaches one thing with the lips and
carries another in the heart’130
The teacher’s personality should be Pleasing and impressing. His
Personal appearance will be attractive and impressive. He will be
radiant in nature. He should have enthusiasm, open mindedness,
sense of humor, and power of judgment, cultured mind, and attitude
of cooperation. He should be democratic in nature. He should have
devotion to duty, to the students and God. Gandhiji in his book ‘my
Views on Education’ says “One who cannot take the place of a mother
cannot be a teacher” He used the term ‘Mother –Teacher’ in his book
‘True Education’ he says” I have not used the word teacher in this
article. I throughout used the word “mother-teacher” in its place.
Teachers only to keep vigil guide and watch the progress of students
to enable them to gain the process of self- learning.
www
130. Harijan. 5-6-1937, p.131(CW.New Delhi, Publications Division).
Global Views on Education
Mahatma Gandhi was one of the greatest personalities
in human history of all times. He had had inner divine
perceptions. He believed in a transcendent cosmic
eternal spirit. He had the prophetic spirit to search out the truth
of all earthly tasks. Education, society, economy, politics, culture
and all the aspects of man’s life got his experimental touch. He was
deeply interested in all the earthly tasks of human life. Gandhism
has been considered a living thought for solving the social, economic
and political problems of the day. His ideas and thought of ‘nonviolence’
and peace with honour and justice are still considered the
guiding force to save humanity from the grip of consumerism and
warfare. John Haynes Holmes clearly expressed the relevance of
Gandhian thought and once wrote, “when all the kings and princes
and great captains of our times, who make so much noise and occupy
so central a place upon the stage, when these have long since been
forgotten, every one of them, the Mahatma will still be known and
referred as the greatest Indian since Gautam the Buddha, and as
the greatest man since Jesus Christ.”131
His Social, political, economic and cultural thought is relevant
131. Mishra Dutta, A. (1995). Fundamentals of Gandhism. New Delhi: Mittal
Publications, p.1.
9.
Global Views on Education 97
in the 21st century because he combined theory with practice. He
tried to grip the problems of culture of ‘consumerism’ with adherence
to morality. He advocated non-violence, rational and experimental
attitude together with the fundamental acceptance of an ethical
position.132 Gandhi’s experiment with the truth related to all the
dimensions of life through which his philosophy of life is realized.
Gandhi opined that man’s social, political, economic and religious
activities cannot be divided into watertight compartment.133
www
132. Karunakaran, K.P. (1985). Gandhi-Interpretations.New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishing
House, p.1.
133.Verma, V.P. (1972). The Politcal life of Mahatma Gandhi and Sarvodaya.
Agra,Lakshmi Narayan agarwal, pp. 73-74.
Social, Political, Economic
and Cultural Issues
Mahatma Gandhi wanted to re- build India through
constructive works. His vision and mission was to
establish a new social, political and economic order.
These orders are called nonviolent and non-exploitative in nature.
His ‘Sarvodaya’ philosophy helps to re-build man and the nation.
Education is a tool through which self-purification of man is occurred.
He considered ‘self-purification’ is more important to reconstruct the
nation. The constructive work is the central point of understanding
of Gandhi’s ‘Swaraj’ which was a step towards the attainment the
ultimate goal of ‘Ramrajya’
Social Issues and Gandhian Thought
Mahatma Gandhi wanted to create a new social order based on
Truth, peace and non-violence. He envisaged education and moulded
it into a certain pattern as ‘the spearhead of social revolution’
that will enable life to move forward towards peace, justice and
cooperation. He expressed that life could reach to its destined
greatness through the weapon of education by removing poverty,
ignorance, disease, superstition and intolerance. He was against
caste war and class struggle. He wanted to solve problems of social
tension, social disharmony and social disequilibrium resorting to
social cooperation, collaboration and sympathetic accommodation of
10.
Social, Political, Economic and Cultural Issues 99
brotherly solidarity. He aroused the attention of people to the evils
of social injustice. He thought that true education will awake the
conscience of the human race.
A coward is incapable of exhibiting love; it is the prerogative of the brave.
He wrote in the Harijan in 1925 that “untouchability is our
greatest shame; the humiliation of it is sinking deeper.” He declared
that abolition of untouchability as the essential prerequisite for
India’s independence. To him untouchability is the worst feature
of the caste system.134 The entire outlook of the Hindus on life
and politics is coloured by it.135 He called ‘Durjan’ those who hate
‘Harijan’ (a man of God). Gandhi did not believe in caste system and
considered ‘Varnashram’ an odious and vicious dogma. He cited that
four divisions of ancient society, each complementary to the other
and none inferior or superior to any other.136 He told that ‘God is
love, not hate; God is Truth, not untruth. God alone is great. We, his
creatures are but dust. Krishna honoured Sudama in his rags as he
honored no one else. Love is the root of religion.’137
He said, “My greatest worry is the ignorance and poverty of the
masses of India and the way in which they have been neglected by
134. Barnabas, A.P., & Meheta, C. S. (1965). Caste in Changing India. New Delhi:
IIPA, p.15.
135. Ibid., p.2
136. Harijan, February 11, 1933(CW, New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of
Information and Broad Casting, Government of India).
137. Young India, December 26, 1924, (CW, New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry
of Information and Broad Casting, Government of India).
100 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
the classes, especially the neglect of the Harijans by the Hindus”138
Equality in education irrespective of caste, creed, colour and religion
was his earnest desire.
Gandhi coined a new term ‘Sarvodaya’ literally means the
‘welfare of all’ articulating his vision and mission to transform Indian
society. Sarvodaya, Swaraj, Ahimsha, Satyagraha, Gramodaya,
Samya yoga, Asahayoga all the terms indicate of a new vision for
the reconstruction and transformation of the Indian society. His
ideas of truth, justice, fearlessness, fraternity, absence of hierarchy
and dignity of labour and values are the new components which he
considered very essential for the revivification of ancient society.
In the constructive programme of village society the following
programmes are equally executed by both men and women.139
™™Communal unity
™™Prohibition of intoxicants
™™Removal of Untouchability
™™Village sanitation, health and hygiene
™™Women’s emancipation
™™New Education( Nai Talim)
™™Khadi and Village Industries
™™Krishi and Go seva
138. Tendulkar, D.G.(1953) The Mahatma. (CW, New Delhi: Publications Division,
Ministry of Information and Broad Casting, Government of India) , Vol. iv, pp. 125-26
139. Bharati, K.S. (1956). The SociaL philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi,
Concept Publishing Company, pp.13-14.
Social, Political, Economic and Cultural Issues 101
Political Issues and Gandhian Thought
Politics today becomes a way of nepotism and favouritism to fulfill
self-interest neglecting national interest. Politics without religion
and truth is nasty. Gandhi said, “Those who say that religion has
nothing to do with politics do not know what religion means”140
There are no politics without religion. “Politics bereft of religion
are a death trap because they kill the soul”141 Gandhi was a man
of action. He emphasized on practice in political affairs. Gandhi
himself said, “I am not a man who sits down and thinks out problems
syllogistically, I am a man of action. I react to a situation intuitively.
Logic comes afterwards; it does not precede the event.”142 Professor
Nirmal Kumar Bose mentioned that “…..his greatness lies in the
fact that he has accepted and advocated, the law of love as the
supreme law of our being and has lived his life accordingly..”143 The
basic core of his political thought contributed to the development
of social and political method and challenged the presuppositions
of the main stream of political theory. His stand point on political
methodology was deductive, empirical and pragmatic. His pragmatic
approach fitted with the basic outlook of Truth and non-violence. So
his politics was indeed moral. He analysed the political concepts on
moral direction. He formulated value based standpoint to elaborate
the political concept of freedom, Democracy, Rights and duties. His
approach to politics is more of ethics than of politics. He gave a moral
direction to politics.144 In modern time almost all individual and all
social aspects are directly linked with the politics. He advocated
that no fellow man can serve and eliminate social and economic ills
without active political involvement. Political life if spiritualized
through real education could solve various social and economic
problems.
Mahatma Gandhi expressed his views on the rights of citizens.
These are-Right to Speech, Right to Press, Right to form Association,
140. Gandhi, M.K. (1975). An Autography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth.
Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. pp. 370-71.
141. Young India, (18.06.1925). p.214 cited in Jolly, S.K.(ed). Reading Gandhi. New
Delhi: Cocept Publishing Company.pp.294-296.
142. Pyarelal. (1956). Mahatma Gandhi: The Last Phase. Ahmedabad: Navajivan
Publishing House. Vol.1, p. 120.
143. Bose, N.K. (1954). Swaraj or Gandhibad. Calcutta: I.A.P. Co. Ltd.. (a Bengali
Publication). p.7.
144. Varma, V.P. (1959). The Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and Sarvodaya. Agra:
Laxmi Narain Agarwal. P.1682
102 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Right to Conscience, Right to Religion, Right to Culture and Language,
Right to Equality, Right to Public Service, Right to Profession, Right
to use Public Road, Educational Institutions, Tank and other Public
Institutions Rights. Citzens properly educated make themselves
aware of all these rights.
All these rights have been incorporated in the Indian
Constitution. From that point of view it is clear that rights which
Gandhiji mentioned many years ago still relevant in contemporary
India. Gandhiji followed the principle of decentralization in his
democracy. Gandhiji’s democracy shall be free from exploitation
and oppression. There shall be no scope for exploitation by one
class to another class. Gandhiji said that Democracy is based on
non-violence. Gandhian democracy is still relevant India. He gave
emphasis on the decentralization of power. His main target was to
develop rural administration which has been reflected in the 73rd
amendment of Indian constitution. That amendment is related only
with rural administration of India.
One significant provision of that amendment is decentralization
of power up to the rural level. That amendment has already been
implemented in India. Education on Gandhian line reflects the
political views.
Economic Issues and Gandhian Thought
Mahatma Gandhi was the greatest leader of the 21st century. His
greatness is felt when he emphasized on both thought and action. He was
an ardent follower of truth and non-violence in private and public life.
As a practical idealist he diagnosed the maladies of modern civilization
and relentlessly worked for the solution based on truth, simplicity
and non-violence. He constantly fought against social injustice,
economic inequality, political disintegration, religious, fanaticism and
discrimination against humanism. He fought against the economic
exploitation of the British rulers who imported goods manufactured
by the British industries and exported raw materials from India. This
caused destruction of Indian cottage industries. The gulf between
poverty and prosperity started increasing to an alarming level.
He never wanted separation of economy from ethics, purity
of means and sanctity of labour. To him economics is the science
of human welfare. Its goal ought to be sarvodaya, the welfare.
He adopted the practice the idea of ‘Swadeshi’. He emphasized
on economic decentralization, reconstruction of village economy,
Social, Political, Economic and Cultural Issues 103
Sarvodaya and trusteeship. He wanted to establish economic equality
and suggested that the labourers and the capitalists could work
together in harmony like a great family as the Marxists believed.145
Mukherjee(1978) aptly remarked,146 “It would be wrong to argue
that Gandhi was against large scale or mass production. He was
not against big machines, but he was against the use of machine to
exploit individuals. He did not want the machine to cripple the life
of man.”147 ‘Non-possession’ and ‘bread labour’ are the two economic
concepts of Gandhi. ‘Non-possession’ signifies not having anything
beyond immediate need and ‘bread labour’ means every man should
give physical labour for his food and clothing.
‘Trusteeship’ principle of Mahatma Gandhi aimed at “transferring
accumulated private wealth to community ownership, where labourer
and peasants are co-partners with capitalists and land lords. Through
trusteeship every individual would be able to get sufficient work to
enable him to provide his daily requirements. Such an ideal could be
universally realized if the means of production of basic necessities
of life could remain under the control of the masses.”148 ‘Democracy’
to Gandhi was the art and science of mobilizing the entire physical,
economic and spiritual resources of all sections of the people in the
service of the common good of all. ‘Socialism’ is placed for the uplift
of rural masses. If wants are controlled by ethics they will be limited
and can be fulfilled causing any impending threat to civilization.
In the twenty first century Gandhian model of economy is the
correct alternative in the contemporary world situation. ‘The drive
towards rapid industrialization and urbanization, the persisting
tendency towards concentration of economic and political power,
political and economic corruption, heavy exodus of rural population
into cities, poverty, unemployment all have infused a sense of
urgency and relevance to the Gandhian model. For the maladies of
recent time, Gandhian idealism, educational thought and moralsim
can provide effective solutions and results.’149
145. Nagvi, S., “Economic Thinking of Gandhi-The Theory of Trusteeship”, in S.C.
Biswas (ed), (1969), Gandhi-Theory and Practice: Socio Impact and Contemporary
Relevance. Simla Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, p.212
146. Mukherjee, D. (1978). The Towering Spirit, New Delhi: Chetana Publication,
147. Sharma, B.D. (1956).Gandhiji as Political Thinker,Indian Press, Allahabad, Private
Ltd., p.138.
148. Young India, Vol.iii, pp. 923-24. Cited in Bharati, K.S. (1991). The Social
Philodsophy of Mahatma Gandhi. P.11.
149. Patil, V.T. and Anikivi, A. S., ‘An Enquiry into Gandhian Model of Democracy’ in
104 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Gandhi‘s economic philosophy is inspired by John Ruskin (1819-
1900) and he was immensely inspired, ‘by his book ‘Unto The Last’150
Mahatma Gandhi had his own approach to the economic problem
of India. He did not essentially believe in promoting large scale
industrialization which rendered economic dislocation and in fact
was responsible for many present day economic problems. Gandhi
condemned the nineteenth century doctrine of ‘laissez-faire’ which
is the political basis of capitalism151 and he said that labour was
superior to In 1921, Gandhiji wrote, “Economics that hurts the moral
well being of an individual or a nation is immoral, and, therefore,
sin.” Again in 1924, he repeated the same belief ‘that economics is
untrue which ignores or disregard moral values.’ ‘Khadi’ stood for
the revival and rejuvenation of the Indian Village communities. To
him, ‘khadi’was the symbol of Swadeshi.152
He was afraid that use of machinery on a large scale would result in
technological unemployment.153 He extends Ruskin‘s conception of the
equality of wages to all kinds of labour and pleads for equal distribution.
Gandhian economy is still relevant to our times. It is often
thought that Mahatma Gandhi was essentially a religious ascetic
who was averse to the fruits of modern science and technology. It
is an unfortunate misconception. He was not against machinery
as such. All that he meant was that in a country like India where
capital was scare and labour abundant, it would be profitable to use
labour intensive industries.154
Once he told, ‘build India by your own efforts, be a sovereign
power, become self-respectable and never compromise in principles.
The 21st generation “will scarcely believe that such a man as this
ever lived in flesh and blood and walked upon the earth”(Einstein).
His economic ideas are the ideals which no age or no society can fade
its brightness and usefulness. Education on Gandhian line is the
way to realize the economic views advocated by him for the creation
of an ideal and developed nation.
Studies on Gandhi edited by V.T. Patil, p.33.
150. Ruskin, J. (1860). Unto The Last. Munora Pulveris.(1826)
151. Varma V.P. (1981).The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and Sarovdaya,
Agra, Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal, p. 110.
152. Ibid, p-118.
153. Ibid, p. 126.
154. Ibid, page-110 as quoted from Harijan, September 7, 1947.
Religious and Cultural Issues
and Gandhian Thought
Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869 in the city of Porbandar
in Gujarat. Porbandar is located on the western coast of
India, next to the Arabian Sea. Culturally, this pocket of
India was relatively untouched by the waves of western influence
washing across the major cities of British India. The area of
west Gujarat was dominated by The Hindus, Jains and was very
traditional. Gandhi’s family was Hindu. They were of the Vaishya
caste. They were of the Modh Bania sub caste. The word ‘Bania’ is
a synonym to businessman. The word ‘Gandhi’ originally meant
grocer.
Gandhi’s parents were Hindus. They often went to temples of
Shiva and of Rama as well as their own Vishnu temple. Gandhi’s
father frequently had Jain priests as well as Parsees and Muslims
come to his house to discuss religious subjects. The deepest religious
impression in his early life was the reading of the Ramayana by a
friend of the family. This friend came and read the Ramayana over
a period of many weeks to his father, mother and siblings. Gandhi
found it uplifting and later concluded that the Ramayana was the
greatest book of devotional literature.
However, while in London he finally ‘crossed the Sahara of
atheism’. He was introduced to Sir Edwin Arnold’s The Song
11.
106 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Celestial by two Theosophists. He was entranced by this English
translation of the Bhagavad Gita. He was then given by these
friends – Sir Edwin Arnold’s The Light of Asia on the life of the
Buddha. He was profoundly moved by this exquisite portrait of the
remarkable life and teachings of Gautama Buddha. Subsequently,
he read H.P. Blavatsky’s The Key to Theosophy which helped him
to appreciate the spiritual and philosophical wealth of Hinduism. It
helped him to increasingly understand that every religion embodies
some form of spiritual wisdom. Gandhi undertook to read the Old
and New Testaments. He was primarily bored with the former and
very moved by the latter. He was particularly thrilled by the Sermon
on the Mount. He felt that it was akin to the Gita and to the message
of Lord Buddha. Gandhi claimed that he initially attempted to
rationally integrate the entire religious corpus he read, but his ‘raw
mind’ could not grasp the underlying unity. However, he did grasp
that the essence of all religion was ‘renunciation’. To Gandhi, this
meant that religion was essentially concerned with morality and
that the latter was essentially Truth.
Religion is a universal phenomenon followed by all societies
and communities. Some sociologists have defined religion as
‘collective expression of human values’ Philosophers have called it
‘a superstitious structure of incoherent metaphysical notions’ Some
Psychologists call it the ‘mythical complex surrounding a projected
super ego’ The Oxford dictionary defines religion as ‘Human
recognition of super human controlling power and especially of
a personal God entitled to obedience and worship, effect of such
recognition on conduct and mental attitude’.
Gandhis Views on Religion and Religious Education
Religion is the basic foundation of Gandhi’s life, his thought
and his action. His political and social philosophy got a solid
foundation from religion. Gandgiji regarded religion as purely a
personal matter. Religion is a positive force of inner awakening. It
is divine and embraced truth, beauty and goodness. “True religion
is identical with morality. There is no religion higher than truth
and Righteousness.”155 Gandhi believed, “No man can live without
religion. Whether by reason, or by instinct, or by superstition, man
acknowledges some sort of relationship with the divine.”156 Gandhi
defined religion as, “a belief in the ordered and the moral Government
155. Gandhi, M.K. (1968). Ethical Religion, Ahmedabad, Navajivan, p.19.
156. Gandhi, M.K. (2002).My Religion, Ahmedabad, Navajivan, p.3.
Religious and Cultural Issues and Gandhian Thought 107
of the Universe” He again said, “By religion, I do not mean formal
religion or customary religion, but that religion which underlines all
religions which brings us face -to –face with our maker.”157
Mahatma Gandhi considered religion as an ethical frame work for
the conduct of daily life. “Religion which takes no account of practical
affairs and does not help to solve them is no religion.”158 His personal
image of God was ‘Ram’ He recited ‘Ramayana Mantra’ ‘Ramnam’
to overcome fear of ghosts. He continued to worship God Ram and
even he dedicated his last words to him ‘Hey Ram’ at the moment of
death. His impersonal God was ‘Truth’ and ‘Satya’. The kingdom of
righteousness on earth was the concept of his ‘Ram Rajya’. To him
‘satya’ or truth is attributed to God. He said, “To me God is truth
and love; God is ethics and morality. God is fearlessness. God is the
source of light and life and yet above and beyond all these God is
conscience”159
Gandhi believed that all religions are true and all religions can
have errors in them. Only true religion binds man to God and man
to man. The principle of all religion is the unity of all men and of all
life. The fundamental moral values are common to all religions. He
opined that general education is separated to religious education.
He categorically made the difference between the two. ‘Truth’,
‘Ahimsha’ and morality are to be included in general curriculum.
Religious education imparts religious teachings.
“The question of religious education is very difficult, yet we
cannot do without it. India will never be godless. Rank atheism
cannot flourish in this land. The task is indeed difficult. My head
begins to turn as I think of religious education. Our religious teachers
are hypocritical and selfish; they will have to be approached. The
Mullas, the Dasturs and the Brahmins hold the key in their hands,
but if they will not have the good sense, the energy that we have
derived from English education will have to be devoted to religious
education.”160
“A curriculum of religious instruction should include a study
of the tenets of faiths other than one’s own. For this purpose the
157. Ibid., p.3.
158. Ibid., p.4
159. Young India, 5th March 1925, (CW, New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry
of Information and Broad Casting, Government of India).
160. Hind Swaraj ,1908, (CW, New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of
Information and Broad Casting, Government of India).
108 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
students should be trained to cultivate the habit of understanding
and appreciating the doctrines of various great religions of the
world in a spirit of reverence and broad-minded tolerance. Just as
preservation of one’s own culture does not mean contempt for that of
others, but requires assimilation of the best that there may be in all
the other cultures, even so should be the case with religion.”161
Gandhi wanted to bridge between ancient Indian culture and
modern western culture and the synthesis of both. He said, “I do
not want my house to be walled in on all sides and my windows to
be stuffed. I want the cultures of all the lands to be blown about my
house as freely as possible.”
Gandhi desired that Hindu-Muslim must live in peace with
maintaining fraternity. He wrote, “I am striving to become the
best cement between the two communities. My longing is to be able
to cement the two with my bloods, if necessary”162 Religion is the
ordered moral governance of the world.
True religion signifies moral values and non-violence. He
declared, “My ethical religion is made up of laws which bind men
all over the world.”163 A true religion is a revelation of truth. Gandhi
said, “Just as a tree has many branches but one root, similarly the
various religions are leaves and branches of the same tree”164
Gandhiji was for all religion and not in favour of a particular
religion. His religion was the religion that binds man with truth and
his politics help to seek the truth. The religion which contributes
to the national integration, progress, mutual cooperation, peace,
values, morality and politics at the service to mankind is a desirable
one which Gandhi advocated for the benefit of the humanity.
www
161. Young India, 6-12-’28, (CW, New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of
Information and Broad Casting, Government of India)
162. Young India, 25.9.24. (CW, New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of
Information and Broad Casting, Government of India)
163. Varma, V. P. (1961), Modern Indian Political Thought, Agra, Lakshmi Narayan
Agarwala, p.326.
164. Gandhi, M.K. ( 1955), My Religion. Ahmedabad, Navajiban, p. 2,
National Policy and Gandhian
Views on Education
After independence framing of a National system of
education was a goal of National Policy on education. The
British rulers introduced a colonial system of education
in India. The main objective of the British education was to produce
reliable employees for the colonial administration and the education
system was guided for the interest of colonial exploitation. The
vast masses are kept illiterate to fulfill this colonial interest. So
the urgent need of independent India was to introduce a national
pattern of education and to remove the demerits of earlier education.
Gandhian philosophy of education paves the way of a nationalized
system of education. Gandhi’s scheme of Basic Education attempted
to solve the problem by bridging the gap between manual labour
and mental labour through the medium of mother tongue. Gandhian
thought was against linguistic and regional chauvinism.
Social integration, equality in educational opportunity, democratic
ideals in education was absent. Lack of national consciousness in
education encouraged religious fanaticism, communalism and social
disintegration. Gandhian viewpoints solved all these colonial crises
and served a new light of education based on national heritage,
culture and productivity. The National Policies on Education of
1968, 1979 and 1984 were the reflection of Gandhian views which
12.
110 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
can be realized in the characteristics of National Education. Kothari
commission first recommended an integrated system of education
earlier introduced by Mahatma Gandhi for national development.
Characteristics of a National System of Education
™™A National system of education emphasizes on the conservation,
transmission and creation of knowledge as a part of country’s
tradition and culture.
™™National value, heritage, culture, patriotism and national
consciousness are reflected in national education.
™™A National system of education is a system which is framed against
regionalism, revivalism, castes, communalism, exploitation and
injustice.
™™A National system of education promotes national feeling,
national aspiration, democratic principles, national sovereignty
and also foster international understanding
™™It provides equality of educational opportunity. It abolishes
disparities between urban and rural educational facilities and
other disparities.
™™A National system of education must stand upon the firm
foundation of literacy, equalization of all communities,
democracy, secularism, universalization of education, educational
productivity for the development of nation.
™™It ensures free education, development of different languages
and mother tongue as the medium of instruction.165
™™All these salient features of national education are clearly found
in the Gandhian philosophy of education.
National Education Policy-1968, 1979 & 1986
This policy on education of 1968, 1979 and 1986 included several
important aspects of education. The important aspects most of them
found in Gadhian thought are as follows-
™™Universal, free and compulsory education up to the age group of
14 years
™™Equalization of educational opportunities irrespective of caste,
creed, religion or communities
™™Introduction of 10+2+3 pattern of education
™™Common school system
165. Banerjee, J.P. (2003). Education In India. Kolkata: Amitava Roy Central Library.
pp.317-318.
National Policy and Gandhian Views on Education 111
™™Literacy and adult education
™™Expansion of technical and vocational education
™™Attention to work experience
™™Reforms of examination
™™Expansion of physical education, sports and student’s welfare
™™Three language formula
™™Vocationalization of education
™™Adult education
™™Recognition of dignity of labour
Development of scientific, moral and democratic attitude The
national system of education implies that all students irrespective
of caste, creed, religion, sex have access to education. It envisages
a common educational structure and a national curricular frame
work. Understanding of the diverse cultural and social systems
of the people living in different parts of the country, protection of
the environment and removal of social barriers were reflected in
the educational policy. Gandhiji fully rejected colonial pattern of
education and put forward an alternative pattern called Basic
Education because to him colonialization to him was a negation of
truth and nonviolence. He called western civilization ‘a sorry mess’
because their all energy, industry, and enterprise were spent for the
plundering and destroying other races. He rejected western model
of development and wanted education to be reconstructed along
the lines he proposed to help India move away from the western
concept of progress, towards a different form of development. His
Basic Education was supported by Western radical humanities like
pastalozzi, owen, Tolstoy and Dewey.
M .K. Gandhi wanted a national system of education. He believed
that a synthesized national culture can bring national consciousness.
The great treasure lies in Sanskrit, Pali, Magadhi, Persian and Arabic
literature will influence the life of the people of India as they are the
source of the strength of the Nation. This synthesis will naturally
be of the Swadeshi type where each culture is assured its legitimate
place, and not of American pattern, where one dominant culture
absorbs the rest, and where the aim is not towards harmony, but
towards an artificial and forced unity. He characterized the national
language spoken and written by the majority of Indians irrespective
of religion and race for the development on national solidarity and
harmony.
112 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Above all ‘he reconstructed his educational thought in a global
perspective and presented his Basic Education proposal.’166 Changes
in social structure : He placed a productive handicraft in the
center of the school curriculum which caused a radical change in
social structure and the knowledge of sociology in school education
programme. Spinning, weaving, pottery, leather work, metal work,
basket making, book binding, and all other productive works were
associated with specific caste group in the lowest stratum of the
traditional social hierarchy. Many of them belonged to the category
of untouchables who did not get equal opportunity to receive
education. Indigenous education of India and colonial education
during the British period emphasized on the skills and knowledge
which the upper castes had a monopoly. The professions of the lower
castes had been given priority in the curriculum of education. His
proposal of ‘Basic Education’ favoured this class belonging to lower
stratum of society. Irrespective of rich or poor, caste, colour and creed
craft centric education was introduced for all and on the basis of
the needs of the society. Thus Gandhi’s proposal of ‘Basic Education’
favoured the child belonging to the lowest stratum of society. So the
plan of education proposed by Mahatma Gandhi was a process of
social transformation. It also changed the structure of opportunity
for education.
The basic education plan was the perception of an ideal society
as self-reliant communities. It was meant to train the children for
productive work and inspiring them to gain attitude and values of
self-sufficiency conducive to living in a cooperative community.
Views for Introducing Basic Education : Mahatma Gandhi was
not against the use of modern science and technology. He only
opposed the western type of modernity and industrialization where
science and technology was used for exploitation. He wanted to slow
down the march of capitalism in Indian society.
He wanted the interests of the villagers and agricultural labourers
to be protected. He favoured purposeful industriali-zation for the
protection of the village interest without competition with large
scale mechanized establishments. Basic education could enhance
the productive capacities of village children.
166. For a collection of Gandhi’s speeches and articles on basic education, Educational
reconstruction, Wardha, Hindustan Talimi Sangh, 1938. Gandhi’s speech at the Wardha
Conference on 22 October 1937 in T.S. Avinashilingam, Gandhiji’s Experiments in
Education, Delhi, Ministry of Education, 1960.
National Policy and Gandhian Views on Education 113
Linking productive work with education was the heart of
Gandhian Model. The basic difference of his model to John Dewey’s
model is john Dewey sketched the development of democratic
community along the path of capitalism. Mahatma Gandhi sketched
his ideal village community developed on traditional craft based
production. Both Gandhi and Dewey propagated secular pedagogy.
Gandhi separated religion from his Basic education scheme. He
remarks, “We have left out the teaching of religion from the Wardha
scheme of education because we are afraid that Religions as they
are taught and practised today lead to conflict rather than unity.
But on the other hand, I hold that the truths that are common to
all religions can and should be taught to all children. These truths
cannot be taught through words or through books —the children can
learn these truths only through the daily life of the teacher. If the
teacher himself lives up to the tenets of truth and justice, then alone
can the children learn that Truth and Justice are the basis of all
religions.” 167
Leaders of Muslim League in Northern India described Basic
education as a ‘Hindu policy’. CABE also discussed Basic Education
in the perspective of state Policy. The National Planning Committee
under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru believed that large
scale industrialization is only the solution of the problems of poverty
and unemployment. The NPC’s sub-committee framed on general and
technical education did not acknowledge the new system suggested
by Mahatma Gandhi. ‘The introduction of basic education should be
a process of grafting it on to the elementary education possible. The
sub-committee argue that ‘too much stress on vocation at such stage
is spiritually harmful and teaching of general subjects through such
narrow down medium makes the knowledge of subject superficial
and defective.’168 The major objection of the sub-committee was that
the output of children’s work at school will not sustain financially
the schools.
A liberal curriculum for elementary education and expansion
facilities for technical education were the major thrust to the
recommended plan. The pedagogical strength of such a system were
indicated by Nehru in ‘The Discovery of India’.
167. Gandhi, M.K. (1979). Documents on social, moral and spiritual values in education,
New Delhi, NCERT, p. 20.
168. Nehru, J. (1960). (first published in1946). The discovery of India, London:Meridian
Books, p. 416.
114 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
“It is well recognized now that a child’s education should be
intimately associated with some craft or manual activity. The mind
is stimulated thereby and there is a co-ordination between the
activities of the mind and the hands. So also the mind of a growing
boy or girl is stimulated by the machine. It grows under the machine’s
impact (under proper conditions, of course, and not as an exploited
and unhappy worker in a factory) and opens out new horizons.
Simple scientific experiments, peeps into the microscope and an
explanation of the ordinary phenomenon of nature bring excitement
in their train, an understanding of some of life’s processes, and a
desire to experiment and find out instead of relying on set phrases
and old formulae. Self-confidence and the co-operative spirit grow,
and frustration, arising out of the miasma of the past, lessens. A
civilization based on ever-changing and advancing mechanical
techniques leads to this. Such a civilization is a marked change, a
jump almost from the older type, and is intimately connected with
modern industrialization.’169
Nehru pointed out at the experimental based pedagogy of science.
Many Indian intellectuals were committed to rapid modernization
and did not accept Gandhi’s plan. Mulk Raj Anand wrote in his book
, ‘On Education’ that ‘The dream of perfecting good little minds on
the basis of Khadi and non-violence, so that these morons vegetate
within the limits of their self-sufficient communities, is not only
impossible in an India where every village is already inundated
with cheap machine-made goods produced by foreign and indigenous
capitalists, but is likely to bring about the very opposite of all those
qualities which the Mahatma seeks to create in the average Indian.’170
www
169. National Planning Committee, General education and technical education and
developmental research, p. 58, Bombay, Vora, 1948. (Reports of Sub-Committees
series.) . p. 140.
170. Anand, M. R. (1947). On education, Bombay, Hind Kitab. p. 20.
Gandhian Educational Views
on Sustainable Development
Mahatma Gandhi, a great educationist and a strong
supporter of sustainable development was an ardent
lover of nature. His simple living style was adoptive
to nature. He gave emphasis on simple living and high thinking.
His craft centric education was against consumerization. He never
adopted sophisticated style which is a result of consumerization.
Consumerism increases the use of industrial products which
ultimately add different types of wastes in natural environment
causing pollution. Today bio-diversity is in danger due to Ozone
depletion, green house effect, and climatic change. The increasing
use of natural resources is posing the threat to the environment.
So Mahatma Gandhi was against the excess use and exploitation of
natural resources. He protested human greed for the exploitation
of nature. His simple life style was suited to nature. His Ashramic
system of education flourished within the boundary of splendid
nature. He gave emphasis on the minimum and efficient use of
available natural resources. He showed his conservative attitude
and compassion for the balance of nature.171 He emphasized on selfcontrol.
He practiced ‘Yama’ and ‘Niyama’ mentioned in religious
scriptures to show self-control and self-discipline over the all existence
in nature. The aim of his educational plan was self-realizationtion.
171. Nayyar, K. R. (1994). Politics of sustainable Development,Economic and political
weekly:1928.
13.
116 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
The ‘Yama’ is the self-imposed ethical code of conduct reflected in
his educational thought which means to show respect to all living
organisms and materialistic things in nature. He maintained five
Yamas’ for the conservation and protection of natural resources.172
All these ‘Yamas’ are the objectives of the goal of his education.
™™‘Ahimsha’: The value of Gandhian education lies on nonviolence.
He taught non-violence towards living creatures like
birds, insects, plants, animals and other organisms in nature.
Non-violence results in safe living of all living creatures. It also
helps to maintain biodiversity and ecological balance.
™™‘Satya’: ‘satya’ means the Truth. It is the legitimate way of controlling
the use of natural resources. ‘Satya’ helps to avoid destruction of
nature. It helps to maintain balance between the need and greed of
all human beings. It results in peace and harmony in nature.
™™‘Asteya’: ‘Asteya’ is the destruction of illegitimate use of natural
resources with all consciousness. It prevents deforestation and
theft of natural resurces. M. K. Gandhi practised this as the
genesis of environmental protection.
™™Brahmacharya: ‘Brahmacharya’ results in the control of birth
rate and inevitably checks the population explosion. Today
the growing population increases the rate of maximum use of
natural resources that creates various natural hazards. To follow
the path of ‘Brahmacharya’ which can indirectly help to adopt
the minimum use of natural resources for the sake of better
sustainability of future generation on this planet.
™™‘Aparigraha’: ‘Aparigraha’ means amassing the wealth. It helps
to cherish the ideals of minimum needs and minimum use of
natural resources. It promotes protection and conservation of
natural resources for the use of future generation.
™™‘Niyama’: Mahatma Gandhi practised five self-imposed code of
conduct called ‘Niyamas’. These include ‘Kama’, ‘Lova’, ‘Moha’,
‘Ahankara’ related to the cleanliness of mind, body and the
surrounding environment.173
™™‘Kama’: ‘Kama’ refers to sexual desire. Mahatma Gandhi advises
to control of unwanted to desire. It helps to control population
explosion and thus deterioration of environment.
™™‘Krodh’: ‘Krodh’ means anger which is the root cause of war and
172. http:// www. Mkgandhi: org/articles/unfinish__ask.htm
173. http://www.mkgandhi.org/environment/environment.htm
Gandhian Educational Views on Sustainable Development 117
destruction of nature.
Warfare is destructive and dangerous which causes harm to
nature. War is the disastrous threat to the environment. The use of
nuclear weapons causes destruction of balance of environment.
1. ‘Lobha’: ‘Lobha’ means greed. Greed develops consummation
and maximum use of natural resources which resulted in
destruction of natural resources. Mahatma Gandhi inspired
for controlling greed and thus prevented misuse of natural
resources and encouraged the protection of natural resources.
2. ‘Moha’: It means undue attainment of resources. Mahatma
Gandhi showed the path of non attachment to wealth.
Attachment causes greed and thus it promotes over exploitation
of natural wealth and degradation of nature.
3. ‘Ahankar’: It means undue self-proud. This triggers the race towards
destruction and annihilation of peace. Proud of mind enhances the
use of variety of goods and services that promotes natural destruction.
Self-reliance is one of the objectives of education. Mahatma
Gandhi gave importance on village handicraft to develop selfreliance
of the villagers. Dependence on indigenous product and
swadeshi grow self -reliance. The use of ‘Charkha’-the spinning
wheel promotes rationality and sustainability of the use of natural
resources. Use of ‘Swadeshi’ helps to protect both renewable and non
renewable resources. The cottage industry and the use of swadeshi
bring self-reliance and through this sustainability continue.
Environment protection and conservation He refers the earth ‘the
Dharitri mata’ a place of living creature. This respect resolves at least
minimizes the use of ground water, cutting of trees, hunting of animals
as they are the part of mother earth. Worshiping of plants reduces
pollution of environment and promotes love, care and affection towards
environment. He was a vegetarian and supported vegetarianism
which is the base of wild life and biodiversity. His principle of nonviolence
designed to prevent the violence against nature. To him the
whole universe Is a family. He regarded this concept as ‘Vasudhaiba
kutumbakam’ Gandhiji was against hunting of wild life, felling of
trees, exploitation of natural resources and spoilage of ecosystem.
Constitutional Provisions and Gandhian thought on environment
: The provisions of the Directive Principles of State Policy and the
Fundamental duties are the cumulative reflection of Gandhian
thought. Article 48-A ‘The state shall Endeavour to protect and
118 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life
of the country’ ensures protection of wild life. Article 51A-2 provides
that ‘It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and
improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and
wild life and to have compassion for the living creatures’
The environmental thought of Mahatma Gandhi was reflected in the
Constitutional Provisions. So Protection of wild animals and protection
of biodiversity are needed to achieve sustainable development.
Women Education and Protection of Environment
Women are more concerned with nature. The worship of plants
and some animals by the women folk helps to preserve natural
resources. Mahatma Gandhi encourages the women to protect the
environment. Their role for protection of environment is constructive.
Mahatma Gandhi’s greatest contribution to sustainable
development is twofold.
™™His experiments in simple living and high thinking
™™His insistence on the growth of natural resources and rural
development
Gandhian spirituality neglects material needs, greed and
desires. His experiments on food, Brahmacharya’ fasting, Naya are
the results of spirituality. Gandhi was not blind to the phenomena
and evolution of nature. He convinced that forces of attraction and
love saved the animals and plants on the earth. Even the ferocious
animals tenderly nurse their young ones. He wanted to understand
nature as the expression of God. He was fond of naturotherapy for
the treatment of diseases by the application of fresh water, air, heat
and light. He loved the mother earth keeping in touch with bare foot.
He stated that nearer to nature means nearer to health. According
to him God expresses himself in the harmonies of nature. In his
Autobiography, he says, “I was charmed with the natural scenery…
and bowed my head in reverence to our ancestors for their sense of
the beautiful nature, and for their foresight in investing beautiful
manifestations of nature with religious significance.” So the idea of
environmental consciousness and the sustainability of men on this
planet can be derived from the philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.174
www
174. Ibid; p-99
Different Issues and
Gandhian Thoughts
Education is learning from the experiences gained through
various aspects of human life. It is life oriented increasing
ability of the individuals to meet the challenges of life and to
solve all social, economic, political and religious problems efficiently.
Education being a multipolar process enables the individual to make
adjustments with the changing physical, social, economic, political
and spiritual environment. Education is a process of social change
and enrichment of culture. An educational approach is directed
towards personal growth and social transformation and based on
the belief that human beings are essentially spiritual but free from
religious bigotry and fanaticism. Real education makes balance
between culture and values and ensures mental spirit. Gandhian
philosophy is the inclusion of all these ideas and values of education
covering all aspects of human lives. So to reveal the truth regarding
the implications of Gandhi’s educational thought on Secondary
education in West Bengal, all perspectives of education and aspects
of human life need to be discussed.
Education : National Development and Modernization
It is known to all that man is a rational being. His ability to
speak language and thinking is quite different from all other
animals. Naturally he has the aspiration to achieve progress and
14.
120 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
all round positive development. It is Education that helps man to
achieve a dominant position in this planet. Pestalozzi has rightly
said, ‘Education is the natural, harmonious and progressive
development of man’s innate powers’. Education includes all the
process that develops human ability and behaviour. Education is
the manifestation of divinity already exists in man. It is mentioned
in the Rig Veda that education is something ‘which makes a man
self-reliant and selfless’. Education is not just the mere acquisition
of knowledge and skills but changing of human behavior to provide
him the opportunity to lead a complete healthy social life. It refines
the child’s behavior, knowledge, skills, character and it is responsible
for all round development of child. Education is the process by which
knowledge, character and behaviour of the young are shaped and
moulded. It is, therefore, said that education is the acquisition
of knowledge and experience, development of skills, habits and
attitudes of the learners. Education helps a person to lead a full and
worthwhile life in this world. It helps to develop total personality to
become a complete human being. It is the only weapon which makes
human being as resource for the development of a nation. Man
making and character building education develops scientific outlook,
experimental attitude and moral spirit as well as social, economic
and political understanding of our children. This type of education
enables them to share the responsibility for building an ideal nation.
So an ideal foundation or philosophical base of education is needed
to make the nation developed. Educational planning in India is,
therefore, termed as the development planning which intends to
promote a rapid rise in the standard of living, increasing production,
opportunity to employment in the service of the community and
fulfillment of national objectives. Education becomes the instrument
of national development when it helps people to acquire and develop
the capabilities to perform various tasks and functions exploiting
their inner potentialities. According to P. Drucker, “Human beings
become resources only when they are trained, developed and
attracted to productive work”. After the attainment of freedom
in 1947, the main perspective of our national development was
education. Education was given more emphasis because it is the most
important means of national and emotional integration. Education
should not only aim at imparting knowledge but should develop
all aspects of students’ personality. It broadens the outlook, foster
the feeling of oneness, nationalism, spirit of sacrifice, tolerance and
Different Issues and Gandhian Thoughts 121
in this way self- interest is submerged in the large interest of the
country. Personal development through education is ultimately the
cause of social welfare and national development. National system
of education irrespective of caste, creed, colour religion and language
help in the development of nation. Educational process involving the
development of a feeling of unity, solidarity and cohesion, a sense of
common citizenship and human resources makes the nation united
and developed. Mahatma Gandhi rightly considered education as
the instrument of development. Gandhi never neglected the aspect
of economy. According to him a strengthened and sound rural
economy through the learning of productive work would revitalize
Indian economy. A class less society or Sarvodaya could introduce
a system of Production that does not fail to make use of science and
technology for creating a sound economy in modern civilization.175
Gandhi’s seminal work Hind Swaraj is a critique of modern
civilization. He wrote ‘Hind Swaraj’ in 1908 and categorically
mentioned that Human progress is not the same thing as material
progress. It is because moral progress leads humans to higher level
of consciousness and material progress is essential only so long as
it enhances moral progress. ‘Swaraj’ of individuals, communities,
societies and nation will be considered as goal to achieve human
progress and survival of humanity. ‘Swaraj’ could be achieved only
through Sarvodaya -the holistic development of all.176
Gandhi appreciated some aspects of modern civilization such as
modern concept of human rights, fundamental equality, the right
of democratic representation etc. and firmly criticized materialism,
rationalism, consumerism, modern medicine, immoral Governmental
Institutions and so on. According to David Hardiman Gandhi had put
forward an indigenous concept of ‘alternative Modernity’ and shown
a constructive critique of modernity accepting its good features.
Hardiman mentioned that Gandhi had given an alternative to the
concept of development in the form of constructive programme
included as spinning, development of handicrafts, propagating
communal harmony, movement against untouchability village
upliftment and so on.177 Nicholas F. Gier believes that Gandhi is a
‘construc-tive’ post modernist since he places virtue at the centre of
175. Pandey, j. (1998). Gandhi and 21st century. NewDelhi: Concept Publishing
Company, p.47.
176. Jolly, S.K. (2006). Reading Gandhi, New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company,
177. Hardiman, D. (2003). An alternative Modernity Gandhi: in his Times and ours.
Ahmedabad, Navajiban House,
122 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
his writings against the deconstructionist rejection of any central
concept.178 In Rudolph’s book Gandhi was entitled ‘post modernist’ as
he challenged epistemology in the spirit of science and described his
pursuit of truth as ‘experiment’.179 Gandhi’s idea of truth was ‘truth
in action’ in the facts and circumstances of the particular situation.
His views on education and machinery are equally unconventional,
radical and relevant today. Gandhiji says, “Character building has
the first place in it (education and that is primary education). A
building erected on that foundation will last.”
In his book ‘Hind swaraj’ Gandhiji quoted the definition of liberal
education as given by Aldous Huxley.
He said, “That man I think has had liberal education who has
been so trained in youth that his body is ready servant of his will
….whose passion are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will,
the servant of a tender conscience…”.180 The educational views of
Mahatma Gandhi need to be inculcated in Secondary education to
reach the goal of education at this stage and for the development of
human resource.
www
178. Nicholas F. G. (2004). The Virtue of Non-Violence: from Gautama to Gandhi .
SUNY Press, p.3
179. Rudolph, L.I., & Rudolph, S.H. ( 2006). Postmodern Gandhi and other essays.
New Delhi, Oxford University Press.
180. Gandhi, M.K. (1938). Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule. Ahmedabad, Navajiban
Publishing House, P.P.-32-33.
Educational Philosophy of
Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi believed that people had no idea about
the true education because the value of education was
assessed from the economic point of view. The parents
provided their sons and daughters such type of education which
enable them to earn money. But this is not the main objective of
true education. The main objective of education should be the
development of character. The nature of true education is defined
as the formation of character. Mahatma Gandhi said, “The real
difficulty is that people have no idea of what education truly is. We
assess the value of education in the same manner as we assess the
value of education in the same manner as we assess the value of
land or of shares in the stock-exchange market. We want to provide
only such education as would enable the student to earn more. We
hardly give any thought to the improvement of the character of the
educated.”181
™™Education is Not Mere Literacy : Mahatma Gandhi had given
emphasis on acquiring good habits and believed that the main
function of the teacher is not to teach the alphabet but to inculcate
humanity. Aristotle once rightly remarked that virtue cannot be
learnt by reading big volumes but virtue can be learnt by doing
181.Gandhi, M. K. (1953). True Education. Ahmedabad, Navajeeban Publishing
House, p. 38.
15.
124 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
good deeds. “Mere literacy is not education. True education is to
face the challenges of life. Parents should provide such education
and teachers should discharge their duties accordingly. Parents,
Teachers and students all should recognize that mere literacy is
not education.”182
“Service which is rendered without joy helps neither the servant nor theserved.”
™™Education as Training : When Mahatma Gandhi was in the
prison, he read Emersion, Ruskin and Mazzini. He had also been
reading the Upanishadas. All confirmed him that ‘education does
not mean knowledge of letters but it means character building’,
it means knowledge of duty. ‘Our own word literally means
‘training’. If this be true view and it is to my mind the only true
view, you are receiving the best education—training—possible’183
™™Education as Service : Mahatma Gandhi opined that true
education lies in serving others. ‘A great deal of religious
obligations on us is fulfilled when we nurse the sick.’ He was
worried about the bookish learning so long as the students were
engaged in this. To him carrying out the fundamentals of ethics
is duty. He told, ‘I shall support you if you want to study further
182. Indian Opinion. 18 May, 1907 (CW6. PP. 484-85) cited in Singh, Y.K. (2009).
Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi, APH Publishing
Corporation, PP.1-2.
183. Letter to Manilal Gandhi, 25 March, 1909 (CW9, P. 208). Cited , Ibid.,P.2
Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi 125
out of your love for it or for excellence. But I won’t scold you if you
do not do it.’184
™™Education As Laying Strong Foundation : Mahatma Gandhi
considered education as the foundation of life. The ordinary
meaning of education is knowledge of letters. To teach boys
reading, writing, and arithmetic is called primary education. He
gave example of a peasant who earns his bread honestly who
knows fairly well how he should behave towards his parents, his
wife, his children and his fellow villagers. He understood and
observed the rule of morality. But he could not write his own
name. ‘What is the need of giving him –knowledge of letters? He
will not need such an education.’ He believed that a man has had
a liberal education has been so trained in youth that his body is
the ready servant of his will and does with ease and pleasure.
One who is truly educated is defined by him as- “whose intellect
is clear, cold, logic engine with all parts of equal strength and in
smooth working order, Whose mind is stored with a knowledge
of the fundamental truths of nature,…whose passions are
trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender
conscience.’’185
™™Education As Liberation : Mahatma Gandhi believed that true
education makes man liberate from bondage and from desire. It
184. Letter to Ramdas Gandhi (The Making of the Mahatma. P.97) cited in Singh,
Y.K.(2009). Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi, APH Publishing
Corporation, P.3.
185. Hind Swaraj, Chapter xviii,21 November, 1990(CW 10. PP.54-55). cited in Singh,
Y.K. (2009). Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi, APH Publishing
Corporation, P.6.
126 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
is the ultimate goal of life. He said, “That is true education which
leads to freedom. That which liberates is education’’186
™™Education As Assimilation : Mahatma Gandhi expressed his
opinion that it is the duty of students to assimilate whatever they
have learnt. ‘They need education in such measure that it would
not become too much of a useless burden on them.’187
™™Overcoming Fear : Gandhi believed that real education makes
pupils to become more courageous. It teaches to follow the truth
and to be devoted for the sake of own country. He said, “For us,
fear has become synonymous with life. What is the use of that
education which does not help us to overcome fear, but which,
on the contrary, strengthens it? What kind of an education is it
which does not teach us to follow truth and to cultivate devotion
for the country?”188
™™Learning and Courage : Learning without courage is not the
goal of true education. Mental strength and courage is gained
through work oriented education. Mahatma Gandhi suggested,
‘Let them (students) realize that learning without courage is like
a waxen statue beautiful to look at but bound to melt at the least
touch of a hot substance.’189
™™Education as Contemplation : Mahatma Gandhi opined that
education should contemplate the whole life. Mere memorizing
and bookish knowledge is not education. He had no faith in the
so-called system of education which produced ‘men of learning
without the backbone of character.’190
™™True Education of the Child : Mahatma Gandhi believed
that true education does not mean knowledge of the alphabet.
Knowledge of alphabet is only a means to education. But true
education implies a child’s learning how to put his mind and all
his senses to good use.’191
™™Education and Culture : Culture is the refinement of feelings.
186. Speech to students, Ahmedabad, 18 November 1926(CW 18, P.471) cited in, Ibid.,
P.7
187. Speech to Students in Bombay, 14 February, 1915(CW13, P.23). cited in, Ibid., P.7
188. Speech at students meeting, Agra, 23 November 1920 (CW19, P16) cited in, Singh,
Y.K. (2009). Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi, APH Publishing
Corporation, P.8.
189. Young India, 12 July, 1928, P. 236. cited, Ibid., P.8
190. Interview with W.W. Hall , October 1928 (CW37, P. 320). cited in, Ibid., P.9
191. Navajivan, 2 june 1929 (CW41, P.6). Cited, Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational
Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi, APH Publishing Corporation, PP.1-2
Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi 127
Education makes a man cultured. Cultural progress achieved
through education makes a society and nation healthy. Education’
means knowledge of literature. According to Gandhi, “Education
is a means and culture is the end. The latter is possible even
without education. For instance, if a child is brought up in a truly
cultured family, it will consciously imbibe culture from its family,
in our country at any rate. Present-day education and culture
have no connection with each other.’’192
™™Development of Body, Mind and Spirit : The English word
‘education’ is derived from the Latin words ‘Educere’ ‘Educare’
Educo’and ‘Educatum’. ‘Educere’ etymologically means ‘drawing
out’. That means to bring out the best of the latent talents.
Development of a certain thing does not mean the change its
kind or quality, but it is to bring out the latent qualities. Hence
‘education’ means ‘unfoldment’. True education is something
different. Man is made of three constituents, the body, mind,
and spirit. True education leads to the development of all these
constituents. Spiritual development causes the development of
soul force and will force. True education is that which leads to
‘moksha’. Spiritual development brings enlightment and enables
learners for self realization. “Education can also be understood
in another sense; that is, whatever leads to a full or maximum
development of all the three, the body, mind and spirit, may also
be called education.”193
™™Making the Right Choice : Mahatma Gandhi wanted to make
a revolutionary change in the existing system of education. He
suggested that this revolutionary change would be possible
when hands on activities were given more emphasis. It would
be miss interpretation only if mind is given importance in the
process of development. Development of hands and feet is not
less important. According to him, “Our education has got to be
revolutionized. The brain must be educated through the hand.”194
™™Making the Whole Man : Mahatma Gandhi believed that the
true economics of education lie in this fact that making of whole
man is possible through the harmonious development of body,
192. Letter to Premabehn Kantak, 5 January, 1931 (CW 45, PP. 63-64). Ibid.,P.14
193. Navjiban Education Supplement, 28 February 1926(CW30, pp. 58-59). Cited in,
Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi, APH
Publishing Corporation, P.12
194. Discussion with teacher Trainees, Harijan, 18 February, 1939(CW68, pp. 372-73).
Ibid.,P.18
128 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
mind and soul. He gave emphasis on the training of all organs
of body and it is the quickest way intellectual development. I
hold that true education of the intellect can only come through
a proper exercise and training of the bodily organs, e.g., hands,
feet, eyes, ears, nose etc.’’195
™™Education of the Hand : Mahatma Gandhi advocated the
education of the hand. Training of hands is the source of skill
development. So a socially useful productive handicraft is the
heart of Basic Education. Training of hands habituates man to
think critically and creatively. Man becomes a creator of through
the education of hand. He said, ‘Literary education should follow
the education of the hand –the one gift that visibly distinguishes
man from beast.’196
™™Self-Supporting Schools : Mahatma Gandhi introduced craft
centric education to make the schools self-supported. Thus
learning of a productive craft followed by the related subject
knowledge is the beginning of education. He said, “By education
I mean an all round drawing out of the best in child and man—
body, mind and spirit.”
™™Knowledge of Self : True education is the knowledge of the
atman or true self. It is the knowledge of God and Truth. The
study of literature, the study of sciences and the study of art have
the same goal of knowledge of the self. Mahatma Gandhi said,
‘‘True education is that which helps us to know the atman, our
true self, God and Truth.’
™™Strengthening of Character : Mahatma Gandhi believed that
real education does not mean packing the brain with so many
facts and figures, it does not mean in passing examinations by
reading numerous books. Real education is the developing of
character. Without developing of character the pursuance of nonviolence
is impossible. Formation of character is the foundation
of life. He said, “We also found that real education consists not in
packing the brain with so many facts and figures, not in passing
examinations by reading numerous books but in developing
character.197
195. Harijan, 8 may 1937 , p. 104 cited in Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational Philosophy of
Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi, APH Publishing Corporation, 17
196. Harijan, 8 March 1935, p. 28. Cited in Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational Philosophy
of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi, APH Publishing Corporation, P.16
197. Speech at meeting of students, Marseilles, Young India, 1 October 1931 (CW
Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi 129
™™Culture as the Foundation of Education : Mahatma Gandhi
gave importance on the cultural aspect of education. He opined
that the inner development of a person is reflected in his conduct.
Ancient tradition and culture help in the formation of personal
behaviour. The foundation of education is thus a glorious culture
of nation. He said, “I attach far more importance to the cultural
aspect of education than to the literacy. Culture is the foundation,
the primary thing the girls ought to get from here. It should show
in the smallest detail of your conduct and personal behavior, how
you sit, how you walk, how you dress, etc. Inner culture must
be reflected in your speech, the way in which treat visitors and
guests, and behave towards one another and your teachers and
elders.”198
™™Education for a New World : Education is the way of creating
a new world order based on Truth, tolerance, peace, non-violence
and global harmony. He said, ‘Education must be of a new type
for the sake of the creation of a new world.’ A new world based
on mutual cooperation, mutual understanding can be created
through the introduction of production oriented education.
Students while engaged in productive work will be able to learn
self-sufficiency, dignity of labour, mutual co-operation, social
awareness, mutual understanding and peaceful co-existence of
all living beings.
™™Nationalism : The main object of education is to bring national
consciousness. A sense of oneness is grown through the education.
True education enables students to serve for the progress of their
own country. They do not look for their self-interest. National
interest is given priority. National feeling is created through
national type of education. He said, “Education is just means. If it
is not accompanied by truthfulness, firmness, patience and other
virtues, it remains sterile, and sometimes does harm instead of
good. The object of education is not to be able to earn money, but
to improve oneself and to serve the country.199 (Harijan, 1947, p.
494).
™™Public Good : Education is applied for the public welfare. The
47,P.422). cited in, Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.
New Delhi, APH Publishing Corporation.
198. Speech at Kasturba Balika Ashram,20 April 1946 (CW 84, p.36). Ibid., P.19
199. Pandey, J. (1998). Gandhi and 21st century. New Delhi, Concept PublishingCompany,
pp. 219-220
130 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
villagers apply the new invention of science and technology in the
field of agriculture and cottage industry. Thus the development
of village economy enhanced. Mahatma Gandhi said, “Knowledge
is justified only when it is put to good use and employed in the
public cause. Otherwise, as we pointed out once earlier and as
everyone will readily admit, it is like poison.200
™™Service of Humanity : Education is a tool that changes in the
attitude of learners for the service of humanity. Self-less service,
dedication to the welfare of humanity, personal ethics all the
values can be imparted through the education. Mahatma Gandhi
said that the students receive education not for their own benefit
but for the service of their mother land. The good educational
system should train a proper citizen against social or other evils.
In Gandhian system of education a harmonious balance is reached
between the individual and the social aim of education.“Their
end was not to get more than a decent livelihood or how to shine
in life, but to serve humanity in order to serve the mother land;
education ought to be used to promote moral growth.201 Speech at
Law College, Trivandrum, 14 March 1925 (CW26, p.307)
™™Purity of Personal Life : Absolute purity of heart is the end of
education. True education is for the purity of personal life. In the
‘Gurukul’ system of education the word student was termed as
brahmachari. The Brahmachari led a religious life and gain purity
of heart. Religion, ethics and spirituality were synchronized with
the life of the Brahmacharis. Personal ethics defined by the Vedas
led them to form a good moral character. According to Mahatma
Gandhi,“Purity of personal life is the one indispensible condition
for building a sound education.…And I hope you know what the
word brahmachari means. It means searcher after God. The end
of all knowledge must be building of character.202
™™Quest for Truth : True education helps to know the Atman, the
true self, God and truth. This knowledge is gained by the study
of literature, sciences and art. But every branch of knowledge
should have as its goal, knowledge of the self. Devotion to duty
200. Indian opinion, 4 April 1908 (CW8, p.171) Cited in, Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational
Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.New Delhi, APH Publishing Corporation,P.37
201. Pani, S.P., Pattnaik, S.K., (2006), Vivekananda, Aurobindo and Gandhi on
Education, New Delhi, Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., pp. 176-77
202. Speech at Voorhee’s college, vellore, 30 August 1927 (CW, pp.422-23) cited in,
Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi, APH
Publishing Corporation.P. 43.
Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi 131
and the spirit of service are necessary for proper development.
According to Mahatma Gandhi,“The first necessarily brings
about development of the intellect. In doing any piece of work,
however small, we should be inspired by a holy aim and, while
doing it, we should try to understand the purpose which it will
serve and the scientific method of doing it. There is a science of
every type of work—whether it is cooking, sanitation, carpentry
or spinning. Everybody who does his work with the attitude of a
student knows its science or discovers it.” 203
™™National Character: Mahatma Gandhi believed that true
education develops national character. Courage, strength,
virtue, working ability all these qualities are grown by the Basic
education. These qualities help to form a strong character of the
individual and the society will be built on the strong foundation.
The nation will be developed maintaining healthy relation with
the states if the individual character is developed. He said,
“I would try to develop courage, strength, virtue, the ability
to forget oneself in working towards great aims. This is more
important than literacy; academic learning is only a means to
this greater end. But in a nation where character is developed in
all individuals, there can be no conflict between the dictates of
one’s own conscience and those of the state.’204
™™Self- Control : Mahatma Gandhi considered education as selfcontrol.
He opined that true education would lead a life of selfcontrol.
In a letter to Bhogilal he expressed his opinion. ‘True
education is development. One should, therefore, go in for such
kind of education as will bring it about. It need not be of one fixed
type. Hence it is not necessary to say anything on that subject.
One should lead a life of self-control.’205
™™Humility : Mahatma Gandhi did not give emphasis on passing
of examination or obtaining degree. He emphasized on learning
to be properly used through humility. True education enables
individual to achieve humility and service to others. In a Speech
at Dayaagram jethamal college, Korachi he emphasized on
achieving humility of students. “With this introduction I would
203. From a microfilm of the Gujrati: M. M. U./II, 10 July 1932 (CW 50, p.182) cited, P.
44.
204. Remarks of mankind, 1932, pp. 104-05 cited in, Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational
Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi, APH Publishing Corporation.P.45
205. Letter to Bhogilal, 20 February 1933 ( CW53, p, 366) cited in, Ibid.,P. 45
132 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
like to tell the students, boys and girls, that humility is the
primary thing to be acquired. One who is not humble cannot put
one’s learning to proper use. .. if learning is to be put to proper
use, if it is to be used only for the service, one should acquire
more and more humility every day. No service is possible without
it.’206
™™Development of Independent Thinking : In a speech at
Lahore Mahatma Gandhi advised students to acquire independent
thinking and opined that learning is not for sensuous pleasures.
It is for self-less dedication and to be free from all kind of
domination except reason. Education liberates man and saves
from darkness, sensuous pleasure and false behaviour. So he
said, “We acquire learning not for sensuous pleasures and for
earning but for mukti. Education is considered necessary to save
ourselves from darkness, sensuous pleasures and capricious
behavior.”207
™™Nai Talim : Mahatma Gandhi proposed a new blend of education.
Nai Talim is a beautiful blend of Craft, art, health and education.
According to him,“Craft, art, health and education should all be
integrated into one scheme. Nai Talim is a beautiful blend of all
the four and covers the whole education of the individual from
the time of conception to the moment of death…...”208
™™Basic Education : Mahatma Gandhi introduced a new scheme
of education for the development of body, mind and soul. Basic
education is craft centered. It creates the base of life and makes
the foundation of life strong, developing harmonious combination
of life-body, mind and spirit. The Basic education is meant to
transform village children into model villagers. Basic education
gives the villagers village arithmetic, village geography, village
history, and the literary knowledge that they must use daily.
The meaning, nature and aims of basic education are derived
from the collection of works of Gandhi which are as follows.‘Our
system of (Basic) education leads to the development of the mind,
body and soul. The ordinary system cares only for the mind.’209
206. Speech at Dayaagram jethamal college, korachi,10 july 1934 (CW58 , p.164) cited
in, Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi, APH
Publishing Corporation.P.45
207. Speech at students’ meeting, Lahore, 13 july 1934 (CW58,P. 183) cited,Ibid.,P.45
208. Harijan. 10-11-’ 46, p.394 cited in, Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational Philosophy of
Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi, APH Publishing Corporation.P.45
209. Harijan, 9-11-’ 47, p. 401 cited in Singh, Y.K. (2009). Educational Philosophy of
Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi 133
The notion of education through handicraft rises from the
contemplation of truth and love. Mahatma Gandhi wanted to make
students self-supported. He told that literacy is not the main objective
of education. School can be made self-supporting. Through the basic
education the highest development of mind and soul is possible. ‘The
Basic education is meant to transform village children into model
villagers. It develops both the body and the mind, and keeps the
child rooted to the soil with a glorious vision of the future…’His view
of education is the true development of Head, Heart and Hand.210
Mahatma Gandhi opined that the quickest development of
intelligence can not be developed only through reading of books. The
development of mind will be easily possible by learning a handicraft in
a scientific manner in schools.‘The utterly false idea that intelligence
can be developed only through book reading should give place to the
truth that the quickest development of the mind can be achieved by
artisan’s work being learnt in a scientific manner.’211
Mahatma Gandhi called the knowledge of Reading, Writing and
Arithmetic (3R’s) dry knowledge for the village farmers because they
do not use such knowledge in their daily life. The villagers will learn
village arithmetic, village geography, village history, and the literary
knowledge eagerly and they will pass this knowledge to the next
generation. He said, ‘The dry knowledge of the three R’s is not even
now, it can never be, a permanent part of the villagers’ life. They
must have knowledge given to them which they must use daily.212
™™Medium of Education : Mahatma Gandhi favoured provincial
languages as the medium of instruction. Mother tongue at the
primary and secondary stage should be given emphasis. Foreign
language will be considered optional in higher education where
necessary. According to him, “the medium of instruction should
be altered at once, and, at any cost, the provincial languages
being given their rightful places.’213
™™Religious Education : Mahatma Gandhi expressed that
Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi, APH Publishing Corporation.P.83
210. Pandey, J. (1998). Gandhi and 21st century. New Delhi, Concept Publishing
Company. pp. 221-223
211. Harijan, 22-6-4o, p. 173. Articles On & By Gandhi, Gandhi’s views on
education,http://www.mkgandhi.org/ articles/vision_edu,htm, pp.1-2
212. Harijan, 9-1-37, p. 386 cited in Singh,D. (1995). Perspective in Gandhian Thought.
New Delhi, CommonWealth Publishers. pp. 34-35
213. Pani, S.P., Pattnaik, S.K., (2006). Vivekananda, Aurobindo and Gandhi on
Education. New Delhi, Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.. p. 195
134 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
religious education cannot be given in educational institutions.
Religious education is the soul concern of religious institutions.
Fundamental ethics and morality are not the religion but every
religion has its ethics or morality to follow. He was strongly
against the religious education of the educational institutions.
To him religion means Truth and Ahimsa or rather Truth alone
because Truth includes Ahimsa and Ahimsa is the necessary and
indispensable means for its discovery. Non-violence means good
will towards others and doing well towards others. The students
should be trained to cultivate the habit of understanding and
appreciating the doctrines of various great religions of the world
in a spirit of reverence and broad-minded tolerance. He said, ‘I do
not believe that the state can concern itself or cope with religious
education. I believe that religious education must be the soul
concern of religious associations. 214
™™The Aims and Objectives of Education : The philosophical
views of Gandhiji are that education is a means of self- supporting
and it should be based on truthfulness, firmness, patience and
other virtues. The objective of education is to make student an
able citizen to serve the country selflessly. True education is a
true knowledge of the self, soul and God. Education is achieved
not for mere employment which will draw out the best in child
and man. The school is a holy place for building character.
Knowledge is the means and character building is the end. Self
-respect and character are above means of livelihood, career or
status in society. Hence the goal of education is to gain self-respect
and mould character. The essence of all education is kindness
to all, friends, foes, men and beasts. If education is taken into
consideration as the means of acquiring wealth, the morality of
pupil will go down. According to Mahatma Gandhi, “I believe that
one of the chief reasons for our moral fall is that doctors, lawyers,
teachers, and others acquire their knowledge mainly for getting
money and, in fact, use it for that purpose.” True education is
that which draws out and stimulates the spiritual, intellectual
and physical faculties of man.215
‘Education,’ as Gandhi considered, should be gained to serve
the humanity and thus for the mother land. The end of education
214. Singhvi, L. M., Rai, M. R. and Ramakrishnan (Eds)‘ Nani Palkiwala-selected
works? Viking, Bhawan‘s Book University, New Delhi, pp-238-243.
215. Navajiban, 1 July, 1924, Collected Works, vol.24, p. 174 , Navjivan Publishing
House, Ahmedabad.
Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi 135
is making the foundation of character in the form of fearlessness,
courtesy, bravery and truth. Purity of thought and purity of heart
should be cultivated through inculcation of glorious heritage of the
past. ‘In itself knowledge is only a means. It can be only employed for
good, for making money, and in the service of public cause.’216
™™Experiments on Education in India : Mahatma Gandhi
came to Shantiniketan and came in close contact to the
Bengali teachers-Jagadanandbabu, Nepalbabu, santosh babu,
Nagenbabu and Kalibabu. Andrews and Pearson also helped him
in the experimentation. He was greatly moved by the Tagore’s
Ashramik system of education at Shantiniketan. Gandhji
expressed his views on education in the discussion.
They are as follows :
1. Till the age of eight years both boys and girls should have coeducation.
2. The education should mainly consist in manual training under
the supervision of an educationist.
3. General knowledge should be imparted to children when they
are able to recognize things. Reading and writing should come
later.
4. First the child should be taught to draw simple geometrical
figures and then he should be taught to write the alphabet.
5. Reading should come before writing. The letters should be
treated as pictures to them.
6. Nothing should be taught to the child by force. He should be
interested in the matter to be taught.
7. Play is an essential part of education. Education should appear
to the child like play. So play way technique to be adopted as
the method of teaching.
8. Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction.
9. Religious education is indispensable and the child should get it
by watching the teachers’ conduct and by hearing him to talk
about the religion.
10. It is desirable that during the second stage from 9 to 16 the
boys and girls should have co-education
11. Manual training should continue along with the literary
education during the Second stage.
216. Indian Opinion, 4 April 1908 (CW8, P 171), Ibid
136 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
12. Education during the second stage (9-16) should be selfsupporting.
13. All teachers should be men of character. They should be inspired
by a spirit of man making education.
The Objectives of Education As Gandhi Proposed
Education, as Gandhi wanted, to be moulded into a certain
pattern without which good life could not come into being. According
to him good education or good life is not possible if a good social order
is not established. He envisaged education as ‘the spearhead of a
social revolution’ which would enable life to move forward towards
peace, justice and co-operation. He did not want to make education
as a tool to train people to earn money or to accumulate wealth or
power or even the graces of culture. He was deeply interested in
making education for mental, emotional and spiritual development
of human life. He dedicated his life for the promotion of greatness
and triumphs of human life and for the elimination of miseries,
injustice, ignorance, intolerance, superstition, poverty and diseases.
So he made education a part of national reconstruction. At present
education in India is not completely linked to the realities of national
life and aspirations. It was not related to the new problems and
hazards in the 21st century. Students of present education system
are given a little insight in their national culture, ancient glorious
past, values and morality. But education should be for man making
and character building. Education is for the sake of new ideals and
new man in a new world. It should be made objective based.
www
Social Philosophy and
Education for Untouchables
The Social Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi is a radically
transformed humanity to reconstruct human society with
a positive socio-economic force. His Sarvodaya Philosophy
helps to understand his educational views. It is a new dynamic
philosophy popularly known as ‘Sarvodaya’ seeks to build a society
having based on the foundations of old spiritual and moral values
of India and attempts to meet the challenge of the contemporary
problems.217 It envisages a well balanced development of the nation
and there will be no difference between privileged and under –
privileged. There is no any dogma in this philosophy. “The philosophy
of Sarvodaya is not a set of dogmas, in its essence; it is compatible
with an attempt of the spirit to prevail over matter and to socialize
itself.’218
It is a symbol of Platonic detachment and Gita’s Anasakti.219
The aim of his educational Philosophy lies on his social Philosophy.
Gandhi found the idea of ‘sarvodaya’ from the Vedas, Upanishsads,
217. Verma, V.P. (1980). The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi and Sarvodaya.
Agra: Lakshmi Narayan Agarwal, 4th Edition, P.279.
218. Mohanty J. N. (1960). Sarvodaya and Aurobindo- a Rapprochement. Gandhi Marg,
Vol.4, No.30, July P.211.
219. Pandey, B. P. (1988). Gandhi, Sarvodaya and Organizations, Allahabad: Chugh
Publications, PP. 20-21.
16.
138 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
the Ramayana, the Gita and Koran and extended its meaning
and application. After the death of Gandhi his followers known as
‘Sarvodaya School’ decided to form an organization named ‘Satyagraha
Samaj’. The central figure of this school of thought was Vinova vave
and its philosophy was known as sarvodaya Philosophy.220 The word
‘Sarvodaya’ is originated from Sanskrit which is comprised of ‘Sarva’
means all and ‘Udaya’ means rising. This means welfare of all or
the rising of all living beings.221 The word ‘Sarvodaya’ appeared in
the form of a title of john Ruskin’s book ‘Unto the Last’.222 It was a
title of series of nine articles written by Gandhi and it was published
in Gujrati in 1908.223 Sarvodaya includes all people irrespective of
caste, class, creed and religion. According to Acharya Vinoba Bhave,
Sarvodaya means making all people happy by removing poverty and
suffering of the people with the help scientific knowledge. It is a state
or order full with divinity, kindness, and equality. Sarvodaya means
welfare and prosperity of all and all must progress without collision
of interest.224 Sarvodaya is a concept stands on self-sacrifice and selfless
service. Gandhi had immediate inspiration from Ruskin’s book
‘Unto the Last’ which means uplift of the last and received the ideals
of human welfare.225
Gandhi was deeply influenced by Leo Tolstoy’s book ‘The
Kingdom of God is Within You’ and his essay’ Christianity and
Patriotism’ .Tolstoy and Gandhi both firmly believed that the force
of love is the solution of all human problem. According to them Nonviolence
could cure all social maladies and establish peace on the
earth. The ideology of Sarvodaya has a higher significance as the
idea is derived from the ideal of ‘Niskam karma’ of the Bhagabat
Gita. Gandhi says: ‘self-realization’ and its means is the theme of the
Gita’226 The Gita preaches the message of the welfare of all through
220. Tandon, Vishwanath. (1965). The Social and Political Philosophy of sarvodaya
After Gandhi. Varanashi: Sarva Seva Sang Prakashan, , P.2.
221. Dutta Mishra, Anil. (1995) Fundamentals of Gandhism, New Delhi: Mittal
Publications, P. 5.
222. Mahajan P. Mani., & Bharati, K. s. (1987). Foundations of Gandhian Thought,
Nagpur: Dattsons, P. 68.
223. The Collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. 8., publications Divisions,
Government of India, New Delhi, 1962, PP. 239-41
224. Pandey B. P, op. cit., p.14.
225. Rathnam Chetty, K. M. (1991). Sarvodaya and Freedom:A Gandhian Appraisal.
New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, P.48
226. Gandhi M. K., Young India, 12.11.1925 (CW.Publication Divisions, New Delhi,
Govt. of India.)
Social Philosophy and Education for Untouchables 139
‘sarvadharma’ and ‘sarvabhutahita’ –the good of all beings. The first
verse of Isavayopanishad deals with the principles of equality and
fraternity, non-exploitation, non-acquisitiveness and service to the
society. Gandhi accepted this ideology from Isavayopanishad —the
Universal brotherhood of all living beings.227
Gandhi was highly influenced by the Buddhist philosophy which
preached universal love. Gandhi constantly maintained relationship
between pure means and noble end.228 The main principle of Jainism
is the welfare of all creatures through the adoption of ‘ahimsha’.
Gandhi was influenced by the jain philosophy in establishing
sarvodaya. The holy Koran convinced Gandhi and he declares, ‘the
point of brotherhood is manifested in no other religion as clearly as
in Islam’ According to him the basis of Islam is not violence.229
Gandhi attempted to make synthesis of the essence of Vedanta,
Jainism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity and the teachings of the
great prophets and the sarvodaya was the implication of their ideas
at more critical and analytical levels.230 In Sarvodaya society there
will be no exploitation, discrimination, inequality and violence.
Saovodaya society is considered by Gandhi to be free from evils like
‘politics without principle’ wealth without work’ ‘knowledge without
character’ ‘commerce without morals’ ‘science without mankind’ and
service without sacrifice’231 The true education helps to establish a
good social order if every individual is imbibed with the spirit of
love, tolerance, kindness, fearlessness, non-violence as all these are
individual and social virtues. According to Gandhi non- violence is the
law of life. Self sacrifice for the happiness to others is the foundation
of an ideal society. But a society built on complete ahimsha is the
purest anarchy.232
Secondary education of West Bengal is to be moulded following
the views of Mahatma Gandhi on ideal social values that will be
imparted through education to build an ideal society and for national
227. Dutta Mishra, Anil. (1995). Fundamentals of Gandhism, New Delhi: Mittal
Publications, P11.
228. Ibid,P. 11.
229. Gandhi M. K., Young India, 12.11.1925(CW.Publication Divisions, New Delhi,
Govt. of India.)
230. Dutta Mishra, Anil. (1995). Fundamentals of Gandhism, New Delhi: Mittal
Publications, P11.
231. Ibid,P. 11.
232. Rathnam Chetty, K. M. (1991). Sarvodaya andP.48 Freedom:A Gandhian Appraisal.
New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, p. 46.
140 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
prosperity as well. Mahatma Gandhi wanted to break the social
hierarchy of Varnashram system prevailed in India and propagated
for the equal educational opportunity of the untouchables and down
trodden people to establish a good social order. He wanted to spread
education for all irrespective of caste, creed, colour and sect. Uplift
of the untouchables particularly the Harijans was his educational
motto. His craft centric education in schools for all pupils belonging
to different varnas in society was an attempt to break the social
stratum and conservative ideas which were the guiding principle
of the traditional Indian society. According to him varna means
predetermination of the choice of man’s profession and it is seen
that a man follows the profession of his ancestors for earning
his livelihood. But varnashrama is not a system of watertight
compartments. Every varna is justified by the nature of duties not
by birth only. Shastras defined that Brahmins are expected to spend
themselves in the service of religion by virtue of Tapas, social service
and the quest of Brhama. But the modern Brhamins are not serving
for the religion and they follow all manner of professions to enrich
themselves. As all men and women are born equal there should be
no question of superiority or inferiority. Untouchability is a curse to
him as it is created by the society. So to improve the condition of the
down trodden classes and so called marginalized groups education is
only the weapon.
The social philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi lies in the greatest
good of all people. Good to him was the ‘self-realization’ and not the
material well being of the individuals or society. His thoughts on
Swaraj, Satyagraha, Nationalism, Internationalism and Ram Rajya
have to be realized to understand the Social Philosophy of Gandhi.233
Gandhian Social philosophy is capable of strengthening the forces
of love, the goodness of human nature and unity of mankind. In the
21st century humanity is undergoing almost a phase of moral collapse
due to the complexities of human behavior. Gandhian Social order
appeals to the human mind and heart in terms of values and goals to
realize and solve the growing problem of corruption, unemployment,
accumulation of weallth. Society built on Gandhian order “stands
for not only making all happy by illuminating suffering from all but
also for bringing a world state based on equality.” Gandhi’s social
order is the sarvodaya order aiming at integrated development of all
233. Dutta Mishra, Anil. (1995). Fundamentals of Gandhism, New Delhi : Mittal
Publications, PP. 16-17.
Social Philosophy and Education for Untouchables 141
and universal welfare. Secondary education if moulded on Gandhian
viewpoints would help to establish such social order. Social qualities
need to be imparted in the contents of school subjects of Secondary
education following the social philosophy of Mahtma Gandhi to
establish a good social order.
www
Humanistic Approach
to Education
Gandhian Humanism is a new concept of humanism
goes deeper into the problems of mankind and finds out
solutions through the weapons of education. It is a concept
of inner awakening of mankind. It gives emphasis on love and truth.
Education to him is the exploration of inner consciousness. Education
is the service with full sacrifice in the course of self- discovery, selfenrichment,
self-evolution and self-askance. Human imagination
is on the brink of Flourish or perish toyed with automation, supercomputerisation
and Mega-machines. A robotized and computerized
society is sacked with its computerized imagination. Purity of
thoughts and perfection of imagination are waning today. Gandhian
humanism shows the inner awakening of man. As a part of humanistic
enterprise Gandhi gave emphasis on the strict principle of work and
adherence to duty. He presents the example of birds singing hymns
of praise in the early morning and has had their food on flying with
rested wings. According to Gandhi, “I have had the pain of watching
birds that for want of strength could not be coaxed even into a flutter
of their wings. The human bird under the Indian sky gets up weaker
than when he pretended to retire. For millions it is an eternal vigil
or an eternal trance. It is an indescribably painful state which has
got to be experienced to be realized”234
17.
Humanistic Approach to Education 143
“If I have thebeliefthat I cando it, Ishall surely acquire the capacity todo it evenif I
may not have it at the beginning.”
Gandhi rejected spoon feeding or dependence of humanity
drastically and inspires real awakening of humanism through selfactivity
and self-dependence. Spirit of work and worship humanity
as Gandhi ardently believes is the worship of God.
Gandhi advocated self-respect self-discipline and self-honour to
be achieved in performing one’s duties and responsibilities. Thus
the introduction of Charkha or the spinning wheel in schools was
considered the way of reviving the inner consciousness of humanity.
Gandhi categorically rejected charity to the poor except the cripple,
the blind and the Brahmanas who possess nothing. “The iniquitous
system of giving doles to the able- bodied idle is going on to our eternal
shame and humiliation, and it is to wipe out the shame that I am
going about with the message of the Charkha up and down the whole
country.”235 According to Gandhi inner desire to work is the root of
humanism. The welfare of all humanity lies on the inner consciousness
of work and only to work without expecting result. “Karmanyevadikaraste
ma phalesu kadachana” Srimad Bhagavad Gita, Chapter-II .
The education of Swaraj is the education of spinning wheel.
The basic Education a practical approach to Naitalim designed
by means of spinning wheel is the key to Gandhian humanism.
Gandhi emphasizes on the humanistic approach to education than
235. M.K. Gandhi: Yong India, February 24, 1927, p. 58, Ibid.
144 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
mere accomplishments in scholastic endeavour. Basic Education
undeniably expands the heart and mind and it fosters humanism
and cultivates the spirit of total human welfare. A child receiving
craft centric, purposeful, useful, meaningful education will be truly
prepared for the peace and prosperity of the humanity.
“Glory lies in the attempt to reach one’s goal and not in reaching it.”
Education in course of undergoing Basic Education programmes
will ensure total development of manhood. Gandhi wanted to make
‘the full man’ characteristically. He said, “My idea is not to teach a
particular profession or occupation to the children, but to develop
the full man through teaching that occupation.236
Gandhi wanted to make education a vehicle of transcendence of
man and a means of evolution of human consciousness. Man has the
quality of imagination, reasoning and thought. He thought for the
others and for the welfare of his fellow being. The insatiable spirit
of adventure and victory proved human supremacy and excel on this
planet and it has been possible through right type of education- the
education of the heart. Gandhi advocated such type of education right
from the childhood for physical, mental, social, morals, aesthetic and
spiritual uplift. Gandhi believed in that education of the heart and
purity of thought and action cannot be imparted by so called bookish
knowledge. Teachers who are ethically and aesthetically sound can
turn out pupils being worthy citizens of tomorrow. A teacher should
bear in him a good moral character and to be trained of heart to
nourish children with motherly feeling. He remarked : “I do not
236. Tendulkar, D.G.(1953).Mahatma. Publications division, Ministry of Information
and Broad Casting, Government of India, Vol. iv, P. 201.
Humanistic Approach to Education 145
believe that this (the education of heart) can be imparted through
books. It can only be done through the living touch of the teacher.237
In this way if Education is ill-directed, this will obviously fail to
reach the humanitarian and patriotic ends and draw out the best
in man. So we need right type of education in the hands of an ideal
teacher. Gandhi strongly remarked: “Real education consists in
drawing the best out of you. What better book can there be than
the book of humanity”238 He further said, “Do you wish to make him
discontented with his cottage or his lot? And even if you want to do
that, he will not need such an education. Carried away by the flood of
western thought, we came to the conclusion, without weighing pros
and cons, that we should give this kind of education to the people.”239
Gandhi evaluated higher education from the stand point of Huxleyan
concept of education for accelerating humanism. Professor Huxley has
thus defined education : “That man I think has had a liberal education
who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his
will and does with ease and pleasure all the work that as a mechanism
it is capable of; whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous
will, the servant of a tender conscience….” Mahatma Gandhi opined
that the main thing is not required whatever the subjects taught in
elementary or higher education. What required is the making students
good human being and to make them ready for their duty.
He said, “If this be true education …It does not make of us men. It
does not enable us to do our duty.”240 Whatever education we receive
today does not corporate with our real living, real having and real
being. Man making and character building education can build the
solid foundation of humanism. He said, “Our ancient school system
is enough. Character-building has the first place in it, and that is
primary education. A building erected on that foundation will last”241
Gandhi neglected the value of book reading in the development
of intelligence. Quickest development of mind by means of real
life experiences and sharing mutual experiences for the welfare of
237. Gandhi, M.K. Yong India, September, 1921. Cited in Chakrabarti, M.(1992). New
Delhi, Concept Publishing Company.pp.137-159.
238. Gandhi: M.K. Harijan, March 30, 1934. Cited in Chakrabarti, M.(1992). New
Delhi, Concept Publishing Company.pp.137-159.
239. M.K. Gandhi : Yong India, June, 1921. Ibid.
240. Chakrabarti, M. (Cited).(1992). Gandhian Humanism .New Delhi, Concept
Publishing Company.pp.137-159.
241. Chakrabarti, M. (Cited). (1992). Gandhian Humanism. New Delhi, Concept
Publishing Company.pp.137-159
146 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
mankind is the liberal education we need today. He categorically
stated: “The utterly false idea that intelligence can be developed
only through book- reading should give place to the truth that the
quickest development of the mind can be achieved by artisan’s work
being learnt in a scientific manner.242
A radical humanist Gandhi gave importance to ‘all round
development’ –the development of body, mind and spirit for
development of humanism. Education through teaching useful
handicrafts for humanization is, therefore, necessary. He mentioned
that literacy was not the end of education. Teaching a handicraft in
schools makes pupil self-sufficient.
He rightly remarked: “I would therefore begin the child’s
education by teaching it a useful handicraft. Of course the pupil
learns mathematics whilst he is learning his handicraft.243
True education is always an emancipation—an inner awakening
‘sa vidya ya vimuktaye’ Gandhi started his experiment on education
for awakening of self-consciousness to foster humanism and
desirable human development. To him True education is always a
worthy vehicle for emancipation of humanism. Women education at
par with man is also necessary. Gandhi’s vision of humanism has
been reflected in his educational plans and programmes for women.
He wanted to eliminate the all sorts of inferiority Complex and other
impulses of women through equal right and opportunities to education
with men. Gandhi wanted education of women for dissemination of
humanism. To foster humanism women education is necessary. To
him both men and women should get equal treatment.
Keeping in view the needs of the greater human society Gandhi
wanted to introduce practical education to enable pupils to grow up
both intellectually and humanely. This will help the society for ideal
human development. Both training in mind and hand is needed
for the ideal development of humanism. He frankly remarked : “I
want that the whole education should be imparted through some
handicraft or industry. I would, therefore, give compulsory physical
training through musical drill.”244
Gandhi made a very realistic approach to education suggesting
242. M.K. Gandhi: Harijan, January 9, 1937. Ibid.
243. Gandhi , M. K. (1945). Women and Social Justice. Ahmedabad: Navajiban
Publishing House, P. 3.
244. M.K. Gandhi: Harijan, October 9, 1937. Chakrabarti, M. ( Cited).(1992). Gandhian
Humanism. New Delhi, Concept Publishing Company.pp.137-159
Humanistic Approach to Education 147
means for averting alienation between rural and urban life. The
revival of crafts through education might avert human wastage and
undesirable dependence of mechanical power. It would restore the
care of humanism among mankind everywhere. Social reconstruction
and moral advancement through incorporation of handicrafts will be
possible if basic education is introduced from primary stage.
Sound mind in a sound body is the end of education. Gandhi believes
in the freedom of mind and its complete development. So right from the
early stage pupils should be provided ample scope for the fulfillment of
their curiosity of the facts of life. He suggested: “As regards children’s
curiosity about the facts of life, we should tell them if we know, and
admit our ignorance if we do not. If they do not know and if we refuse to
tell them, they try to acquire the knowledge in a questionable manner.
But if it has to be withheld from them, we must take such risk.”245
Gandhi‘s humanistic pattern if education allowed freedom for
children to enjoy and experience truth directly and consciously
through the hands on activities. He wanted children to broaden their
mind and widen their outlook. Mahatma Gandhi advocated for the
introduction of sex education which is surely the way of sublimation
of curiosity and sex passion of the adolescents. He clearly elucidated:
“We properly control, or conquer the sexual passion by turning a
blind eye to it. I am, therefore, strongly in favour of teaching young
boys and girls the significance and right use of their generative
organs. In my own way I have tried to impart this knowledge to young
children of both sexes, …Today, our entire environment-our reading,
our thinking, and our social behavior—is generally calculated to sub
serve and cater for the sex urge. To break through its coils is no easy
task. But it is a task worthy of our highest Endeavour.”246
If education means awakening of the heart and soul, manual
labour is necessary then. For humanistic education, he had given
more emphasis on manual labour to develop self-dependence and
self- respect. The end of true education can be fulfilled through
artisan work. M.K.Gandhi considered dignity of work in education
to promote humanism. He wanted to bring a radical change in the
concept of education considering work as the worship to humanity.
“Work done with integrity and intelligence, is ultimately the only
245. Desai, M. (1953). The Diary of mahadev Desai. Ahmedabad: Navajiban Publishing
House, P. 188.
246. Tendulkar, D. G.(1953) Mahatma, Publications Division, Ministry of Information
and Broad Casting, Government of India, Vol. iv, P. 62.
148 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
proper medium through which human beings can be truly educated
and that schools must become active centers of ‘doing’ and ‘learning
by doing’ both organized in integral relationship with each other.247
Gandhi wanted to develop inherent sense of humanity among
children and emphasized on co-operation above competition. “He
aims at exalting co-operation above competition, service above
exploitation and non-violence above Violence. Above all, his
educational scheme….is inspired by the hope that by making all
children learn co-operatively through craft work”248
Education is the positive force of humanism. He appealed to this
positive force which could bring about the complete change in man
transforming character and elevating personality. Anibel Del Campo
observed: “Gandhi advocated the complete transformation of men;
and for this transformation, one of his important tools was education.
He aimed at the re-education of character, and he sought to achieve
this by giving them an Ashramic or collective education.”249
Gandhi wanted to revolutionize education through the unfoldment
of latent qualities of children. He correlates education with real
life situation for rethinking and redesigning human possibilities
in the world of wisdom. Gandhi elucidated on revolutionalisaton
of education: “Our education has to be revolutionalised. The brain
should be educated through the hand. The brain gets weary of mere
words, and the child’s mind begins to wander. The hand does the
thing it ought not to do, the eye sees things I ought not to see, and
the ear ought not to hear the things it ought not to hear, and they do
not do, see or hear, respectively, what they ought to.”250
He rightly suggested that pupil should not be the victims of mere
bookish knowledge. “Pupils should know to discriminate between
what should be received and what rejected. It is the duty of the
teacher to teach his pupils discrimination. The Rishis taught their
pupils without books. They only gave them a few mantras which the
pupils treasured in their memories and translated in practical life.
The present day student has to live in the midst of heaps of books,
247. K. G. Saiyidain: Gandhiji: His Life and Work, PP. 207-208
248. Ibid. PP. 210-221
249. Campo, A. D. (1970). Application of Truth and Non-Violence in Gandhi’s
Teaching and Work : Truth and Non-Violence. New Delhi: Gandhi Peace Foundation,
PP. 197-198.
250. Tendulkar, D. G.(1953). Mahatma, Publications Division, Ministry of Information
and Broad Casting, Government of India, Vol. v, P. 42
Humanistic Approach to Education 149
sufficient to choke him.”251
The seeds of spirituality and humanism through practical
perspectives of education undoubtedly have a great influence on the
character and life of the pupils. He suggested: “As I came into closer
contact with them (pupils) saw that it was not through books that
one could impart training of the spirit. …the training of the spirit
was possible only through the exercise of the spirit. And the exercise
of the spirit entirely depended on the life and character.”252
True education is the drawing out of the best and it is possible
when learners enjoy freedom of creativity. Gandhi gave emphasis on
the cultural spirit of our country for developing humanitarian outlook
which is clearly mentioned by Shamsuddin. He remarked: “Indian
culture has all along been influenced by religion in the broadest
sense of term. …but all religions aim at one common universal aim-a
lofty moral and humanitarian outlook. Gandhi considered religion
as an indispensable factor in the system of education.”253
Gandhi opened new schools for imparting Basic education with a
view to spread humanism. He clarified: “I shall endeavor to avoid the
defects of the present system. The chief thing aimed at is contact of
children with men and women of culture and unimpeachable moral
character.254
An apostle of education Gandhi symbolized education as a serene
means of inner growth and for the advancement of radical humanism.
Just seven days prior to the independence of India Gandhi advised to
the students to lead a simple life being engaged in high thinking. He
said, “A student life has been rightly linked to the life of a Sanyashi.
He must be the embodiment of simple living and high thinking.
What can be a greater pleasure than that a student marches from
knowledge to more knowledge?”255
www
251. M.K. Gandhi : Young India, January 29, 1925.Cited in Chakrabarti, M. (1992). New
Delhi, Concept Publishing Company.pp.137-159
252. Gandhi, M. K. (1926). An Auto biography. Ahmedabad: Navajiban Publishing
house, PP. 417-18
253. Samsuddin. (1971). A few words on Gandhian Education and Religion. The Visva
Bharati Quartely, Gandhi Number, vol. 35, August p. 82.
254. Tendulkar: D. G.(1953). Mahatma. Publications Division, Ministry of Information
and Broad Casting, Government of India, Vol.1, pp.211—212.
255. Tendulkar, D. G. (1953). Mahatma. Publications Division, Ministry of Information
and Broad Casting, Government of India, Vol.III, p.71.
Women Education
When women whom we call abala becomes sabala, all
those who are helpless will become powerful’256
In All India Women’s Conference in 1913, Gandhi gave this
message to the nation to serve equal freedom and right to build a
humane and exploitation free society. Gandhi wanted to make our
women more conscious about their own destiny and brought a crucial
break in the attitude of many of the leaders of the reform movement
of the late nineteenth century. He became successful in bringing
a large number of women into the mainstream of the national
movement and in politics. In the process of mass mobilization he
considered women as a powerful potential force in society. Gandhi
wanted to build a society based on tolerance, peace, justice, fraternity
and equality. Neglecting the women, it is not possible to reach the
goal.
Gender equality is a prerequisite factor for peace and development.
Gandhi considered women in glorifying terms ‘women are the
noblest of God’s creation,’ and ‘she is any way superior to man in her
religious devotion,’ and she is ‘an incarnation of ahimsha’. He was
also deeply influenced and shaped his thought by the kind of cultural
256. The Collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. LXIV, 1936-37, P.165. Ahmedabad:
Navajivan Trust, 1982.( Message to the All India Women’s Conference, sent before 23
December 1936).
18.
Women Education 151
and emotional environment in which he was grown up. In childhood
he was deeply influenced by his mother and sister. His first lesson of
satyagraha was taught by his mother. His wife kasturba and other
women in the ashrama especially Meeraben and Amrit Kaur deeply
impressed him. Sita, Damayanti and Draupadi were the three ideals
of Indian womenhood and he invoked repeatedly for the inspiration
of downtrodden women.
To him dowry system was a social evil and a hateful practice.
Marriage with dowry was the ‘marriage by purchase’ and purchased
marriage could not bring harmonious relationship. He suggested for
inter -caste and inter-community marriage a solution to this evil.
Today Population explosion is a great threat to us. But Gandhi
recognized this problem in the yearly Nineteen Thirties. The All
India Women Conference passed a resolution in 1932 for dispensing
on birth control. He believed that self-control is only the legitimate
means of birth control. Economic freedom of women could be achieved
through the empowerment of women and self-sufficiency through
spinning and weaving. He believed that the success of Swadeshi and
Non-cooperation lies in the hands of women if they have universally
been responsible for spinning and weaving. Women’s ‘work and
labour’ is needed for the national development.
Gandhi proposed free and compulsory education for children
of both sexes from ages 7 to 14 in his basic educational scheme
in 1937.257 Now in the Right to Education Act, it is declared that
children of the age group of 6 to 14 years have the fundamental
right (21A) to receive free and compulsory education and it is the
fundamental duty (51A) of the parents of these children to arrange
their education. He suggested for the special curriculum to meet
the special needs of the girls’ student. Home science, needle work,
art and craft music are the special curricula and according to the
needs of the girls student these are to be included in the syllabus. He
preferred women as teachers and passed a resolution to this effect in
the All India Women’s conference in 1931.
Gandhi’s ideology relating to women developed over time. His
ideology assumed the following.
1. Men and women have separate spheres in societies and specific
roles in the making of the Indian nation, for they are essentially
complementary to each other.
257 Patel, M.S. (1953). The Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi , Ahmedabad:
Navajiban publishing House, , p. 109.
152 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
2. Women are not ‘playthings’ who play a greater creative role as
mothers and as wives for the construction of a creative society
3. Women manifest feminine qualities of self-sacrifice, selfreliance,
courage, patience, purity of thought and house hold
work and they are sometimes superior to masculine ones.
4. A woman has to be given different education and training
according to their domestic needs, home economics, and
changing in society to become a successful mother.
5. The existing social customs like child marriage, Sati, and dowry
exploit women and reduce their dignity. Women organizations
are needed to fight against these customs and evils of society.
6. The distinct quality of women is their purity of thought and
purity of work. As a mother she instills national consciousness
in the children and encourages participating in national
movement.
7. Women education is necessary for the uplift of deprived women
by the male sects. Separate education and special training to be
given to them according to their needs and role.
8. ‘A woman can achieve a higher moral and spiritual role if she
rejects her sexuality, reproduction, and family life and devotes
herself to the welfare of the people’
9. Gandhi wanted women to be empowered through education
and economic freedom could indirectly play a vital role in the
empowerment of women.258
www
258. Joshi, P.(1988). Gandhi on Women. Ahmedabad, Navjiban publishing House,
pp.30-31.
Spiritualization in Education
All-round development in man is the end of education.
Without spiritual development a man can not be a complete
human being. Spiritualism is a great exposure of the
awakening of human consciousness to drive a man to know himself
and to have a complete control over him. Spiritualism in man brings
self-purification and self-discipline. Spiritualism indicates a purified
and serene state of mind that makes a harmonious balance between
inherent needs and diverse attractions. When a man exceeds himself
and thinks beyond himself, he can conquer the little self and ascend
to know the higher self – the supreme self which is in terms of
spiritualism stands for the real atman. The practice of non-violence
is based on the sound inner practice of self-purification. ‘….the use
of the matchless weapon of Satyagraha which is a direct corollary of
non-violence and truth. …..It is a solvent strong enough to melt the
stoniest heart.’259
The essence of spiritualism in Gandhian education enlightens
the inner self and crushes the essentials moral restraint.
‘The ascent of the inner spirit for which Gandhi continually
aspires is what serves as the essence of Gandhian spiritualism.
Here is a continual aspirant for enlightenment of the inner self,-the
sacred and serene self-who pays earnest endeavour to move whole
259. Pradhan, R.K., & Rao, U.R. (1945).(Compiled). The mind of Mahatma Gandhi.
Oxford University Press, London: p.44.
19.
154 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
the world with his theory and practice or non-violence to be aware of
utilizing and ennobling the qualities of the head and the heart that
stand for spiritualism par excellence.’260
Gandhian spiritualism allowed priority of the heart to the head,
the inner beauty of religion to mere observance of rites and rituals.
According to Gandhi Brahmacharya is an opener of the doors and
avenues of spiritualization. A proper synchronization of body, mind,
thought, word and deed is needed through spiritual ascent and
excellence. He clarifies his view points: “I was anxious to observe
brhamacharya in thought, word and deed, and equally anxious to
devote the maximum of time to the Satyagraha struggle and fit
myself for it by cultivating purity. I was therefore led to make further
changes and to impose greater restraints upon myself in the matter of
food. The motive for the previous changes had been largely hygienic,
but the new experiments were made from a religious standpoint.”261
The purity of thought and action is essential for self restraint.
Fasting in relation to self- restraint is on Gandhi’s views: “Fasting
can help to curb animal passion, only if it is undertaken with a view
to self –restraint. Some of my friends have actually found their
animal passion and palate stimulated as an after effect of fasts. That
is to say, fasting is futile unless it is as accompanied by an incessant
longing for self-restraint.”262
It is the teacher who has a very significant role for the spiritual
development of students being a living example of man of character.
Gandhi made a very clear analysis and said, “To develop the spirit
is to build character and to enable one to work towards knowledge of
God and self-realization. And I held that this was an essential part
of the training of the young, and that all training without culture of
the spirit was of no use, and might be even harmful.”263
According to Gandhi spiritual education aimed at the inculcation
of Truth and it ensured boldness and awareness to a certain sense
of spiritual insight. Spiritual development occurs when pupils
themselves are encouraged through their inner sense to disseminate
260. Chakraborty, M. Gandhian Spiritualism. Concept Publishing Company, New
Delhi-110059, p.13.
261.Gandhi, M.K. (1988). An Autobiography. Navajiban Publishing House, Ahmedabad,
p.991
262. Ibid., p. 406
263. M. K. Gandhi: Harijan, May 8, 1937. The collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi.
(1965). New Delhi, Publications Division, Ministry of Informattion and Broadcasting,
Government of India.
Spiritualization in Education 155
between the rights and wrong, the good and evil, the moral and
the immoral, truth and untruth, they will be able to form within
themselves the right attitude towards spiritualism. Gandhi believed,
“pupils should know to discriminate between what should be
received and what rejected. It is the duty of teacher to teach pupils
discrimination.
The Rishis taught their pupils without books. They only gave
them a few mantras which the pupils treasured in their memories
and translated in practical life.”264
“Your beliefs become your thoughts. Your thoughts become your words.Your words
become your actions. Your actions become your habits. Your habits become your
values. Your values become your destiny.”
Gandhi earnestly felt that the present day student had to live in
the midst of heap of books, sufficiently failed to receive the education
of the heart and crude facts of life. Education of the heart is the
education of self realization that revealed the ultimate truth, beauty
and goodness and harmonizes body, mind and spirit. Such education
enables the child to have a control over passions and emotions but
the modern mind has been maimed and crippled at the hands of
automation and passivity. To him spiritual development of the child
necessitates proper manifestation.
His Views on Spiritual Development Were as Follows
“True education of the children can only come through a proper
exercise and training of the bodily organs, e.g. hands, feet, eyes,
156 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
ears, nose, etc. In other words, an intelligent use of the bodily organs
in a child provides the best and quickest way of development of his
intellect. By spiritual training I mean education of the heart.”265
The History of human civilization admits that it is Gandhi and
Gandhi alone who has adopted manual work as the highest spiritual
endeavor in education. He made a balance between intellect and
spirit- the culture of the brain and the culture of hands and feet.
It was a revolutionary approach to education that formulated the
concept of Basic education. Gandhi expressed his views: He (Gandhi)
had great regard for what could be achieved with men’s hands and
feet. Indeed he used to say,’ there is no point in developing the brain
only. One has to develop one’s brain through one’s hands’.266
Gandhi gave emphasis on soul development through the education
of heart and politeness to enable learners to follow nobler and higher
values of life. He advocated for stimulating purity, simplicity,
politeness and dissemination of clear concept of right and wrong,
good and evil. Spiritual education will not divert humane sensibilities
towards evil directions. So he rightly remarked: “We cannot properly
control or conquer the sexual passion by turning a blind eye to it. I
am, therefore, strongly in favour of teaching young boys and girls the
significance and right use of their generative organs and in my own
way I have tried to impact this knowledge to young children of both
sexes, for whose training I was sensible. But the sex education that
I stand for must have for its object the conquest and sublimation of
the sex passion……it is man’s special privilege and pride to be gifted
with the faculties of head and heart both, that he is thinking no less
than a feeling animal, and to renounce the sovereignty of reason
over the blind instinct is, therefore, to renounce a man’s estate.”267
Gandhi believed that students should be taught how to lead
a desirable, moral and spiritual life. The most important task
of imparting moral and spiritual education is to be taken up and
performed to eliminate ‘sex complex’ right from the educational
Institutions. The soul force in the learners will direct spiritual
awakening to control greed, lust, corruption and Sensualism. He
remarked, “The conquest of Lust is the highest Endeavour of a man’s
265. Tandulkar, D.G. (1953). Mahatma, New Delhi, Publications Division, Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, vol.iv, p. 62.
266. Ibid., pp.62-63
267. Prabhu, R.K., & Rao, U. R. (compiled).The mind of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford
University Press, P. 108.
Spiritualization in Education 157
or a woman’s existence. And without overcoming lust, man cannot
hope to rule over self … Soul – force comes only through God’s grace
and never descends upon a man who is a slave to lust”.268
Gandhi an ardent follower of spiritualism sincerely hoped of
controlling animal passion through spiritual excellence. Self –
realization can restrain animal passions and safeguard moral
laws and principles. In this connection he opined: “It is wrong and
immoral to seek to escape the consequences of one’s act. It is still
worse for a person to indulge in his animal passions and escape the
consequences of his acts. Moral result can only be produced by moral
restraints.’269
Basic Education threw light on the spiritual education for
character building and humanizing lesson. The foundation of right
thinking, right feeling, and right doing can be developed through the
inculcation of spiritual lesson of education for character building.
Absolute purity of heart comes through the observance of truth and
brahmacharya.
Education is the manifestation of purity and perfection. Gandhi
moulded education for inner awakening. The learner has to draw
out his inherent spiritual force latent in him to pave the avenues
of self-understanding and self-assessment. But modern education is
alarmingly camouflaged due to lack of spiritual education.
Gandhi highlighted manual training in primary education at
wardha conference on 22nd October In 1937 and said, “I am convinced
that the present system of primary education is not only wasteful,
but is positively harmful….I think the remedy lies in educating them
by means vocational and manual training. I have some experience of
myself, having trained my sons and other children on Tolstoy Farm
in South Africa through some manual training,..”270
The wholeness of education could be achieved through an insight
into manual labour –‘a practical religion’ of self-help is the inner
worth of spiritualism. Gandhi showed us a distinct pattern of
spiritualism through manual work. He remarked, “Whilst the child
will be encouraged to spin and help his parents with agricultural
jobs, he will also be made to feel that he does not belong only to his
268. Tandulkar, D.G. (1953). Mahatma, New Delhi, Publications Divisions, Ministry
of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, vol.iv, p.191.
269. Tandulkar, D.G. (1953). Mahatma, New Delhi, Publications Divisions, Ministry
of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, vol.iv, pp. 192-193.
270. Tandulkar, D.G. op. cit., p.197-98.
158 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
parents but also to the village and to the country, and that he must
make some return to them. They would make them self –confident
and brave by their playing for their own education by their own
labour. This system is to be common to all Hindus, Muslims, Parsis
and Christians. I am teaching them practical religion- the religion
of self-help.”271
Gandhi strongly intended to bring about a radical change in
the concept of education. He wanted education to be shaped for
emancipation of inherent spirit of an individual through ‘learning by
doing’. He emphasized to reshape education for right thinking, right
feeling and right doing to eliminate passion and enrich detachment.
According to him “the present system of education does not
meet the requirements of the country in any shape or form.272
Gandhi advocated education for self-purification through a spiritual
manner to bring a real social revolution. He desired to create a
favorable atmosphere of purity and self-restraint for the harmonious
development of pupil.
Spiritual development generally enables man to differentiate
between good and evil. It is the awareness that evil cannot win
over goodness rather it is goodness that gradually eliminates evil.
His spiritual education gave emphasis on the sound foundation or
means to reach the end. He remarked: “If I want to cross the ocean,
I can do only by means of a vessel; if I were to use a cart for that
purpose, both the cart and I would soon find the bottom. The means
may be likened to a seed, the end to a tree; and there is just the
same invisible connection between the means and the end as there
is between the seed and the tree.”273
Gandhi believed that the education of socialism is the education
of spiritualism that teaches the lesson of unity in diversity and
purity of thought and action. So elimination of impurity of mind and
body is the main task of education. Society is the great source of
spiritual development. Gandhi’s entire approach was thus societal
in content. He opined that ‘Truth is God’ and had found his God in
the habitats of the poor, the daridranarayana” Gandhi redirected
271. Chakraborty, M.(1983). Gandhian Spiritualism. New Delhi: Concept Publishing
Company, p. 44.
272. Gandhi, M.K. (1975). Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule. Ahmedabad, Navajiban
Publishing House, pp. 51-52.
273. Das Gupta, S. (1970). Truth and Nonviolence, New Delhi: Gandhi Peace
Foundation, pp. 340-341.
Spiritualization in Education 159
religion towards the best possible manifestation of love to mankind
and a synchronized manner of simplicity and tolerance. Tolerance is
an invaluable component for spiritual insight that can be achieved
through the indigenous pattern of education. The religion that places
man as the endless worshiper of Truth, Beauty and Goodness is the
true religion of love for mankind.
The Spiritual Education of Gandhi Has Opened the New
Following Parameters
Spiritual education is the only education for the advancement
of man as a good human being for the sake of good of all human
beings. Education is a unique, unending and complex process of
self-realization. Education through work harmonizes the matter
with spirit and creates intrinsic motivation in student’s mind. The
ultimate goal of education is the development of soul force. Spiritual
education accelerates this inner development of mind. Gandhian
education quickens the transcendence of humanity and human values.
Gandhi moulds education to promote Truth, Beauty, and Goodness
and to safeguard human values like conscience, love and tolerance.
Education with spiritual touch dispels the mists of ignorance and
frees human mind from stress, anxiety, delusions, disappointment,
despair and depression. The religious views of Mahatma Gandhi
may be inculcated through the co-curricular activities of Secondary
Education.
www
Gandhian Thought and the
Secondary Education in the
21St Century
In the 21st century rapid progress in the field of science and
technology has been taken place. Science and technology
have become more developed. With the use of sophisticated
computer technology men have produced plenty of food and clothing
and achieved material progress. But man has failed to face the
unprecedented global challenges and multidimensional crises.
Secondary education is to be moulded on the practical base to prepare
the learners to face the challenges of life and several multidimensional
crises prevailed in every sphere of life. Development on Gandhian
viewpoints particularly the development of spirituality through
purity of thought and purity of action is a crying need in the field
of education. Man has neglected the spiritual aspects. Gandhi’s
educational thought provides ample scope of awakening spirituality
in man which can save the crises ridden world. According to Gandhi,
‘There is no religion higher than Truth and righteousness’274 He was
a rationalist and also a moralist. So the curriculum of Secondary
education is to be framed to impart reason and morality to the
learners. He said, ‘I reject any religious doctrine that does not appeal
274. Bose N.K.(ed.). (1948). Selection from Gandhi. Ahmedabad, Navajiban Publishing
House, p.228.
20.
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 161
to reason and is in conflict with morality.’275
Gandhian thought on education is a way of life that teaches to
be free from violence, tension, frustration and hatred. This century
is dominated by regionalism, communalism, and groupism, terrorist
and separatist activities. Gandhi wanted a society based on nonviolence,
peace, tolerance and on the principle of cooperation. So these
values are needed to be inculcated in the curriculum of secondary
education. Materialization and commercialization of modern life
was a great concern to him. He did not oppose to the application of
science and technology. He only questioned the purpose for which the
science or technology is used. Students of this stage should be served
the importance of the purpose for which science is used. Present
education in India is completely out of touch with the national
aspiration and the child’s needs. Today the country is faced to fight
against the poverty, unemployment, social, political and economic
reconstruction and many complicated problems. So the education of
secondary stage is to be designed to make foundation of the students’
life to face all the problems.
Development of Science, industrialization and rapid growth of
population have given a new dimension to problems that country
is faced. The urgent need of today is to introduce social justice and
to cultivate social sensitiveness of charity and compassion in the
mind of citizens. India is a land of variety-variety of races, religions,
languages and cultures. But a fabric of sense of unity interwoven
among the citizen is now annihilated. So the need of assessing the
plans and programmes of education is essentially felt. The basic
objectives of education for the development of human resource are to
be fulfilled. The vision and mission of practical efficiency, technical
skill, appreciation to the dignity of work and loyalties to fellow
citizens are to be inculcated through proper education in Secondary
stage. Gandhian thought on education is a solution of present
day problem of education. The aims and objectives of secondary
education, curricula, methodology, and system of evaluation need
to be reshaped on Gandhian ideology. Then children will not only
acquire basic minimum skill of living, they will acquire habits and
attitudes which make them for decent, co-operative and disciplined
living. Secondary education will be broader and practical which
will explore and stimulate varied aptitudes more consciously where
emphasis will shift on active acquisition of knowledge and training
275. Ibid, p.228.
162 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
in co-operative life.276 Students will be equipped with the capacity for
clear thinking and clear expression, with interest not only in their
particular subjects but in all the broad areas of human knowledge
and artistic appreciation and above all, a balanced and humanized
outlook which might provide a bulwark against the prejudices and
fanaticism of various kinds.277
Gandhi wanted education to be moulded into a certain pattern
to make a good social order in which human being will exist in cooperative
life. He envisaged ‘education’ in his own words as ‘the
spearhead of a social revolution’ which would enable life to move
forward towards peace, justice and co-operation. Attainment of
knowledge or training in mind is not enough. Intelligence can only
grow when it comes into contact with practical problems and is used
to solve them. Socially useful productive work at the center of the
process of education will help pupil to attain self-satisfaction and
they will gain powers of self-expression and auto learning using
hands and minds on activities. Learning through work highly
motivates pupils when they solve the problems faced while working
and it becomes an integral part of personality development. Activity
approach to curriculum in Secondary education helps students to get
relief from the burden of memory. Learning of subjective knowledge
through group work creates group spirit in community life and
pupils learn the dignity of labour. Participation in appropriate social
activities has intellectual and social justification as it creates a sense
of identification between the individual and the community.
The world is changing fast in the new millennium due to the
development of technology. Material well being occupies a prominent
place over the greatest good of all people. Humanity is undergoing
almost a phase of moral collapse and ethical nihilism. Service is
being given in quest of personal aggrandizement. In the era of the
mad rush for power and material gain, the significance of Gandhian
principle lies in stressing the permanent value of self-abnegation
and to enshrine the primacy of goodness and character in place of
skill of manipulation and self-assertion.278
276. Wasey, A. Ehsas, F.(2008). Education Gandhi and man. New Delhi : Shipra
Publications, P.8.
277. Wasey, A. Ehsas, F.(2008). Education Gandhi and man. New Delhi : Shipra
Publications, P.8.
278. Dutta Mishra, A.,& Yadav,S. (Eds.).(2005). Socio-Political Thoughts. Vol. New
Delhi: Concept Publications , pp.v-vi.
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 163
Gandhian principles are capable of challenging all the challenges
of the ages. Gandhian philosophy is capable of strengthening the
forces of love, creativeness and joy of life. Self-realization the ultimate
goal of education emphasizes on the spiritual nature of human being
which gives stress on the goodness of human nature and unity of
mankind. His Sarvodaya philosophy is meant to achieve the highest
level of self-realization in which one sees one’s manifestation in all
others.279 The great challenge to education in the 21st century is to
sustain life on this planet. The use of Sophisticated highly capitalintensive
technology is damaging the ecological balance. Education
for sustainable development can change in our attitude towards
nature. Education for equity and justice is needed for sustainable
development. It is four dimensional: 1) Equity among nationsrich
nations, poor nations, developed nations, developing nations;
2) Equity with countries between regions, social classes, genders,
sectors of activities; 3) Equity between generations; and 4) Equity
between economics and ecology and science and spirituality.280
Gandhian education emphasizes on the social development in the
learners to firmly oppose the orthrodoxical traditions of Hinduism
based on untouchability, superstitions, worship of stock and stones
and animal sacrifice. The holistic approach to education teaches
to oppose economic exploitations, social inequality, caste conflicts,
religious and linguistic fanaticism and in human treatment to the
women sect. If mankind has to live in peace and achieve progress in
all spheres, it has to eschew violence and to adhere to the philosophy
of love, truth, tolerance and cooperation.
The essence of Gandhi’s educational philosophy laid on the real
rural development of the nation. Simple living and high thinking,
voluntary reduction of materialistic wants, pursuit of moral and
spiritual principles of life, dignity of labour are the keys of progress
of individual and nation. Balance between the needs and the means
is to be maintained. Gandhi believed that non-violence and truth
could not be sustained unless a balance between the needs and the
means was maintained.281
Education is a powerful tool to bring individual as well as
279. Ibid.
280. Dutta Mishra, A. (2003). Environmental Ethics-A Dialogue of Culture. In
Anil Dutta Mishra and Govind Prasad (Eds.), India and Canada: Past, Present and
Future(p.209).New Delhi: Mittal Publications.
281. Singh, K. (1999). Rural Development: Principles, Policies, and Management. New
Delhi: Sage, pp.85-86.
164 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
national development. Secondary Education, as it lies in the middle
of the primary and Higher Education, is a very important stage of
education. Teachers of Primary section are selected from this stage
and at the same time it is the gate way to Higher Education. So the
success of all stages of education depends on the success of a sound
Secondary Education. But unfortunately our secondary education
remains a weakest link between the Primary and Higher Education.
It has become completely out of touch with the realities of life and
the upsurge of national aspiration.
Students, of all stages whether it may be Primary, secondary or
Higher education, are engaged themselves in accumulating bookish
knowledge. Learning to them becomes a burden and monotonous.
Intrinsic motivation in them is rare for achieving true knowledge
or empirical knowledge. Education today does not help them to
become self-sufficient and self-dependent in future. Even education
of today is not related to the new changes in the global perspectives
and growing socio-economic problems stirring up in our country
in the present century. In educational scenario what we notice
today is indiscipline, impatience, violence, lawlessness, hatred,
decrease of human values, lack of self-confidence, self-sufficiency
and self- reliance, mental insecurity, stress, depression, anxiety
consumerisation of foreign culture etc. The skills of Problem solving
attitude, Decision making capacity, Communication, Interpersonal
relation, Empathy, Social awareness, self-awareness, Coping up
with emotion and Stress are not inculcated due to lack of active
involvement of the learners in the Teaching-learning process.
So ‘all round drawing out of the best’-the goal of education is not
fulfilled. As a result, unemployment, Student’s unrest, violation of
human rights, violation of rules & regulations, religious fanaticism,
inhuman treatment to women, caste conflicts prevailed to greater
extent in the present century. Mahatma Gandhi was a philosopher
in one hand and a ‘Karmayogi’ on the other. Gandhian theories and
principles of education are the solution of all these crises prevailed
in the field of education. Moreover, his educational thought could
guide us to make the Secondary Education more purposive and more
objective based.
His principles and practices of education show a new dimension
to reach the goal of Secondary Education and prevent the value
erosion in the sphere of education and in all aspects of life.
“Education is an organized and sustained instruction designed to
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 165
communicate a combination of knowledge, skills and understanding
valuable for all the activities of life” UNESCO (1986) T. Raymont
(1949) said, ‘Education means the process of development in which
consists the passage of a human being from infancy to maturity,
the process whereby he gradually adopts himself in various ways
to physical, social and spiritual environment,’ Secondary education
plays a vital role in the process of development of the learners. But
it is seen that at Secondary stage, the aims and objectives are not
properly fulfilled. The values and life skills of the students at this
stage are not developed. The Philosophical base of education is
neglected. Hence, ‘Man making and Character building education’ is
not imparted. India is marching ahead towards prosperity. But her
growing prosperity is attended with corruption, crime, lawlessness
and violence leaving her children with a growing sense of unfulfilment,
anxiety, fear and diminishing faith. Such education is needed which
could impart the glorious values and ancient heritage of our country
to make men and women of impeccable character and capable them
of immense practicality. Gandhian thoughts pave the way to bring
down the value erosion under control to develop human resource for
the development of an ideal nation through the inculcation of true
education at Secondary level. Gandhian educational thought is the
solution to reach the goal of the Secondary education.
Tremendous development in the field of science and technology
has been occurred. Rapid growths of population, materialization and
consumerization have created several problems in society. There
is lawlessness, violence, impatience, indiscipline and decrease of
human values in educational institutions. It has been observed that
Quantitative development in the field of education is not desirable
today. Qualitative development is required to develop human resource
and to inculcate human values in students. Gandhian educational
philosophy is the root of solution for all social, cultural, economic and
educational problems prevailing in the present century. It has been
revealed that Mahatma Gandhi advocated his educational views to
solve social, political, economic, cultural religious and environmental
crises in the 21st century. Secondary education though an important
stage of education remains the weakest link between the primary
and higher education in our country. Gandhian educational views
rejuvenate the different aspects of Secondary Education of West
Bengal to bring a revolutionary change in the process of all round
development and quality learning of the pupils. Gandhian activity
166 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
based education is the way to achieve the aims and objectives of
Secondary Education as he categorically emphasized on the principle
of ‘Learning by doing’ and ‘Learning through earning’ Furthermore,
Mahatma Gandhi’s initiatives to incorporate man making and
character building education to broaden the national outlook of the
pupils and to foster the sense of oneness and spirit of self-sacrifice.
Gandhi’s scheme of education as the way to achieve self-reliance and
self-sufficiency for the progress of the nation has also been explained.
Various studies seek to quicken the transcendence of humanity and
human values through the adoption of Gandhian views in Secondary
Education for the development of individual, society and nation.
Gandhian Thought and the development of Life skills at
Secondary Level.
Mahatma Gandhi said, “Development of the whole- all were
directed towards the realization of the ultimate reality-the merger of
the finite the infinite” He further adds, “true education should result
not in material power but in spiritual force” In Secondary education
the curriculum is generally designed following the three objectives
of education.
™™Cognitive domain development
™™Affective domain development
™™Psychomotor domain development
The development of knowledge and understanding could be
possible through the learning of voluminous books. But theory has
got no value unless it is applied into practice. Gandhian tenants
of Basic education emphasize on practice rather than theory of
knowledge. Hands on activities and manual work are given priorities
in the school curriculum of Basic education. So the researcher finds
that the power of application, practice, and development of feelings,
attitude, aptitude and faith can be developed through hands on
activities. The development of affective and psychomotor domain is
also possible if theory comes into practice in this way.
The chief tenants of Gandhi’s Educational Philosophy are
recommended by the teachers during field study which is being
recommended in Secondary education of West Bengal for the
development of life skills.
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 167
They Are:
1. Education is to be craft centered
2. Education is to be self-supporting and self sufficient
3. Education is to be given in mother tongue
4. Education is to be based on truth and Non-violence
The ideals of Gandhian education may be followed in Secondary
education for the development of values and life skills. These ideals
are proposed to be imparted in secondary education.
™™They Are : Formation of class less democratic society based
on freedom and equality and good social order which he called
‘Sarvadoya Samaj’, Dignity of Labour, Development of sense of social
responsibility, Human welfare, Truth and Non-violence In 1996
Jaques Dellor commission recommended four pillars of education.
They are :
1. Learning to know
2. Learning to do
3. Learning to be
4. Learning to live together
Gandhian plan of education particularly the activity based
education in Secondary education to strengthen the four pillars
of education and for the development of the following Life Skills
recommended by the WHO. The Life Skills are very important for the
total development of personality. In the elementary Stage of West
Bengal some life skills are being evaluated through the Formative
Evaluation. The Researcher suggests the following life Skills to be
imparted in the Secondary education as recommended by the WHO.
They are the skills of-
1. Decision Making
2. Problem Solving
3. Creative Thinking
4. Critical Thinking
5. Effective Communication.
6. Inter Personal Relation
7. Empathy
8. Social Awareness
9. Coping with Stress
168 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Coping with Emotion
All these life skills need to be imparted in secondary education.
Relevance of Gandhian educational thought in the present Indian
socio-economic and educational scenario.
Mahatma Gandhi wanted self-supported and work oriented
education to eliminate the socio-economic imbalances in Indian
society. The researcher finds that Gandhi’s Scheme of education
was nationalist in setting and idealist in nature. It is found that his
views in education are pragmatic on one hand, social in purpose and
spiritual in intent. Gandhi’s view points and values are assessed and
the researcher tries to link these ideas with the Secondary education.
The researcher tries to establish that Gandhi’s scheme of education
is relevant to present Indian socio-economic and educational
scenario. Values like Self-help, self-reliance, self-confidence, truth,
non-violence are more pertinent in present days.
It is found that if education is not related to work and work
to education widening gap is then created between school and
society as the Indian society is considered by Mahatma Gandhi as
‘Karmabhumi’ not as ‘Bhogabhumi’. Recently NCERT constituted a
committee to focus on work and education for revising the existing
National Curriculum. The committee noticed that those who work
with their hands and produce wealth are denied access to formal
education and those who have access to formal education denigrate
productive manual work and never gain necessary skills for the same.
The socio-cultural, gender and disability related dimensions of this
dichotomy have serious socio-cultural and economic implications on
education. It is noticed that only the knowledge has become a valid
form in the education system and productive values and skills have
become excluded from the school curriculum. So the researchers
have observed the present system of education and recommended
productive work as pedagogic medium in secondary education for
the acquisition of practical and applicable knowledge, developing
values and multiple skills. It is recommended that a common core
curriculum which will include work centered pedagogy in initially
up to class x in Secondary education of the state. It is also suggested
that a set of work related generic competencies may be considered
for redesigning evaluation parameters and assessment system.
The committee recommended that generic competencies are the
key objectives of education that includes critical thinking, creative
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 169
thinking, communication skill, interpersonal relationship skill, and
aesthetics and work motivation.282
It is found that Mahatma Gandhi elucidated his socio-cultural
view points and planned a system of education for the awakening of
humanism by a synthesis of intersocial and inter –cultural heritage
of national ideals. Desai (1927) cited that Gandhi wanted to develop
the cult of patriotism that teaches the utilization resources of our
country for the benefits of mankind.283
It is observed that Gandhian education teaches the sense of
neighborliness and interdependence that widens the spectrum of
humanism which is more relevant today in the midst of social and
economic crises. The concept of education as Gandhi designed lies
on the concept of self-sufficiency from socio-cultural points of view.
Prabhu and Rao (1945) cited that man is a social being. Without
interrelation with society he cannot realize his oneness with the
universe.284 So self-reliance and self-sufficiency are more relevant
for the integrity and solidarity of mankind. These values need to be
imparted in secondary stage which Gandhi envisaged.
It appears that Gandhian views of education promoted village
crafts and adherence to non-violence that contributed a lot to social
and cultural heritage. Tendulkar (1956) cited that Gandhi believed
in the greatest welfare of the whole society that could be achieved
only when non-violence is accepted by the best mind of the world.285
It is found that the concept of his education was based on the
principle of non-violence which is more relevant today in the sphere
of violence in all respects. So Gandhi rightly thought that education
takes a major role to reorient individual socially for the extinction
of socio-cultural disparities if education is reached equally to the
poorer sections of the society.
The researchers have found that Gandhian concept of education
is the reconstruction of socio-economic and cultural aspects of India.
His constructive programme was closely associated to his plan of
education based on truth and nonviolence. Bharati(1956) cited
282. Nag, S., & Nag, S.(2015). Contemporary India and Education. Kolkata, Rita
Publication. p.165.
283. Desai, M.(1927). Gandhi in Indian Villages. Madras, Ganesan Triplicane, P.170.
284. Tendulkar, D.G. (1956). Mahatma. Publications Division, Ministry of Information
and Broadcasting, Government of India, Vol. V, p.225.
285. Bharati, K.S.(!956). The Social Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. New Delhi,
Concept Publishing Company, pp.13-14.
170 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Gandhi’s constructive programme in which his plan of education
was reflected. Gandhi had listed the following thirteen constructive
programmes in 1941.286
1. Communal Unity
2. Removal of untouchability
3. Prohibition
4. Khadi
5. Other village Industries
6. Village sanitaiion
7. Basic Education
8. Adult Education
9. Uplift of women
10. Education in Health and Hygiene
11. Provincial Language
12. Propagation of Rashtra Bhasha
13. Promotion of Economic Equality
In 1945 Mahatma Gandhi added more five programmes that
included for the uplift of Kishans, Labourers, Adibashis Lepers and
Students. It appears that constructive work was framed to build up
a nonviolent social order. His views on education have a serious and
lasting outlook towards society and economy. Bharati (1956) cited
that real education to Gandhi was to gain economic self-sufficiency.287
So his Basic Education was designed for a free and self-supporting
education.
It is, therefore, reported that Gandhian educational thought is
relevant in the present socio-economic and educational scenario of
west Bengal.
Ideology of Mahatma Gandhi and the Development of Human
Resource.
The researchers try to establish the truth that the Value based
ideology of Mahatma Gandhi needs to be inculcated in the Secondary
curricula of west Bengal to impart man making and character
building education and to develop Human Resource.
Mahatma Gandhi established ashrams in both South Africa and
India. Ashramic life provided pupils a space where caste, class, race,
286. Ibid.p.44
287. Alexander, H. (1984). Gandhi through western eyes. Philadelphia PA: New Society
Publishers.
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 171
gender etc. had no place. It was comprised of a “community of men,
women, and children bound together by common vows and common
work and a common purpose” (Alexander 1984, p. 25).288 These
commitments were derivatives of Truth and ahimsa. They fostered
a “life of mutual observation and intricate discipline and hard to
grasp and harder to condone for the uninitiated” (Ericson 1969,
p.106).289 It is in this atmosphere that Gandhi’s belief in ahimsa
was nourished and promoted. Gandhi worked to create a community
that would embrace and adopt the principles of ahimsa. At the same
time, he wanted to create an atmosphere of ahimsa in an effort to
expand the ideology of the ashrams to the nation as a whole. The
truth of his effort has been well proved when it is found that the
residential missionary schools of West Bengal have got success in
creating social and moral values. The researchers found that more
residential or boarding schools are needed to be established in West
Bengal to generate Gandhian values in secondary level.
It is reported that the following Gandhian values are needed to
be imparted into the Secondary education of West Bengal to develop
human resource and to prevent value erosion in our country.
™™Personal and Social Values : The curriculum of secondary
education may be designed on Gandhian line that will include
personal and social values such as Love, forgiveness, sharing,
Team spirit, Responsibility, Accountability, sympathy, Justice,
Hospitality Nonviolence, Patience, Sports manliness, Loyalty,
Gratitude, Tolerance, Freedom, Determination , Coordination
Truth, Non-violence, Freedom, Democracy , Equality, Self
realization, Purity of ends and means, self- discipline, Antitouch
ability ,Co -operation, Compassion Common good,
Courtesy ,Democratic decision making, Dignity of the Individual,
Endurance, Friendship, Fellow feeling, Forward look, Honesty,
Courage, curiosity, Devotion, Discipline, Faithfulness, Gratitude,
Kindness to animals, Punctuality, Purity, National consciousness,
Sincerity, Self-help, self-confidence , Self-respect, Simple living,
Self-support, Self-reliance, Self-restraint Sympathy, Tolerance,
Universal love, Discipline, Respect for Elders, Faithfulness,
Responsibility, Dedication, Devotion, Self reliance, Sincerity,
288. Erikson, E. H. (1969). Gandhi’s Truth: on the origins of militant nonviolence.
New York, NY : W.W. Norton & Company.
289. Bourai, H. (2004). Gandhian Philosophy and the New world Order. Delhi, Abhijeet
Publications, p. 114
172 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Affection, Obedience, Patriotism, Honesty, Punctuality,
Positive approach, Innovative Creative, Courage, Intelligence,
Truthfulness, Regularity, Hopefulness and Self evaluation etc.
Values of Gandhian thought in respect to the methods of teaching,
discipline, role of teachers and students, curriculum, co-curricular
activities and evaluation need to be followed in the present system
of Secondary Education for man making and character building
education.
Education reveals the qualities of spirit. Bourai (2004)290 stated
that Mahatma Gandhi wanted to make the educational system
for the highest development of the individual on a high moral
and spiritual order where individual becomes a useful member of
society. It is found that morals lay at the very foundation of Gandhi’s
educational system and even all his concepts had moral foundations.
Gandhi stressed that the educational system must be one in which
“the highest development of mind and soul is possible.”291
It is found that the concept of Gandhian education enables
learners to adhere the standpoint of truth and non-violence to be
more purified in action and contemplation. This incessant urge to
truth and non-violence develop positive force within for making
humans as resource. Tendulkar (1956) supported the views and
cited that ‘Truth and non-violence are perhaps the activist forces
you have in the world.292
It is found that ‘self-realization’ is considered as the goal of
education. Gandhi, therefore, emphasized on self-purification
that comes through the observance of non-violence to reach the
farthest limit of humility. Gandhi categorically mentioned that ‘selfpurification
makes individual absolutely passion –free in thought,
speech and action; to rise above the opposing currents of love and
hatred, attachment and repulsion.’293 It is observed that Gandhi
emphasized purity of mind by means of exercise and observance of
love and devotion to non-violence which lifts mankind from pettiness
of mind and selfishness in attitude. Pyarelal (1958) stated that life
is an aspiration. ‘Its mission is to strive after perfection which is
290. Ibid. p.130
291. Tendulkar, D.G. (1956). Mahatma. Publications Division, Ministry of Information
and Broadcasting, Government of India, Vol. III, p.145.
292. Gandhi, M.K. (1959).An Auobiography. Ahmedabad,Navajivan Publishing
House,p.371
293. Pyarelal, (1958). Mahatma Gandhi: The Last Phase. Ahmedabad, Navajivan
Publishing House, vol,II,p.507
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 173
self-realization.’294 Human resource is developed if ‘self-realization
is achieved. True education on Gandhian line enables learners
ceaselessly trying to realize the implications of Truth and nonviolence
and practise them in thought, word and deed.295
Gandhan Views and its Implications on Secondary
™™Educations : Gandhian Philosophy and thought on education had
brought some novel dimensions as well as fundamental changes
in several aspects of secondary education. He categorically
emphasized on the development of social, cultural, moral,
economic, environmental and aesthetic values. He advocated
the principles of ‘Learning by doing’ which will cause ‘all round
drawing out of the best in child and man – body, mind and
spirit’. Gandhi wanted to make our child more realistic rather
than depending upon the accumulation of bookish knowledge.
So he emphasized on the development of 3Hs (Head, Heart
and Hand) instead of 3Rs (Reading, writing and arithmetic).
Gandhi rejected spoon feeding education which is being provided
today. He emphasized on the awakening of humanism and selfconsciousness
through self-activity and self-dependence.
He advocated selfrespect, self-discipline and self-honours and
one’s duties and responsibilities to be achieved through education.
The introduction of Charkha or the spinning wheel in schools was
considered by him as the way of reviving the inner consciousness of
humanity. A child receiving craft centric, purposeful and meaningful
learning will be truly prepared for gaining self-efficiency. They will
be prepared for exploring new ideas and entrepreneurial spirit
concerned for quality, peace and prosperity of the humanity and for
the total development of manhood. Mahatma Gandhi believed that
education means, ‘all round drawing out of the best in child and man,
body, mind and spirit’. The philosophical views of Gandhi indicate
that education is a means of self- supporting and self- sufficiency
in life, based on truthfulness, firmness, patience and other virtues.
True education makes a student an able citizen to serve the country
self-less service. True education is a true knowledge of the self, soul
and God. The nature of true education is defined as the formation of
character, values, attitude and skills. Gandhi opined that education
294. Tendulkar, D.G. (1956). Mahatma. Publications Division, Ministry of Information
and Broadcasting, Government of India, Vol. II, pp. 425-426.
295. Tendulkar, D.G. (1956). Mahatma. Publications Division, Ministry of Information
and Broadcasting, Government of India, Vol. II, pp. 425-426.
174 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
is not a means of earning a living. The school is a holy place for
building character. He firmly believed that knowledge is the means
and character building is the end of education. Self -respect and
character are above means of livelihood, career or status in society.
True education helps to gain self-respect and mould character. So
initiatives need to be taken to achieve these objectives of education at
Secondary level. The end of Secondary education has to be intended
on Gandhian philosophy for making the foundation of character
in the form of fearlessness, courtesy, bravery and truth. Purity of
thought, purity of heart and purity of deed should be cultivated
through the inculcation of glorious ancient heritage of the country.
Secondary Education needs to be directed towards the fulfillment
of these objectives as mentioned in the Gandhian views. Education
is a powerful tool for creating a new world order based on Truth,
tolerance, peace, non-violence and global harmony. ‘Education
must be of a new type for the sake of the creation of a new world.’
Secondary Education, as it lies in the middle of the primary and
Higher Education, is an important stage of education. Teachers of
Primary section are selected from this stage and at the same time it
is the gate way to Higher Education. So the success of all stages of
education depends on the success of a sound Secondary Education.
But unfortunately our Secondary education remains a weakest link
between the Primary and Higher Education.
At present Secondary education has become out of touch
with the realities of life and the upsurge of national aspiration.
Students, of this stage engaged themselves in accumulating bookish
knowledge. Learning appears to them like a burden and becomes
a monotonous job. They do not achieve intrinsic motivation and
rarely engaged in auto learning. Activity based curriculum is not
followed in Secondary education. Students of Secondary education
in West Bengal have become depended on private tuition. Even
they do not hesitate to neglect the school and a majority of students
do not respect their teachers. Their attendance in schools is poor
and even school dropout is not under control. Students do not get
interest because of the dependence on bookish knowledge and lack of
activity oriented education in this stage. The curriculum is designed
only to bring cognitive development. Development of affective and
psychomotor domain remains unfulfilled in Secondary education.
West Bengal Board of secondary Education recently recommended
project work in every subject but this project work is not properly
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 175
followed and maximum projects are cognitive and pedagogic.
Students usually down load the pictures available in internet and
prepare their practical note book. The steps of projects- planning,
executing, judging and evaluating are not properly followed. So the
objectives of activity oriented education are not properly fulfilled.
Recommended teaching methodology and teaching strategies for
contents are not followed. Teacher’s activity remains dominated and
the learners remain passive listeners. Continuous Comprehensive
Evaluation (CCE) system is not properly followed. So the objective
of competency or capacity building in Secondary education remains
unfulfilled.
Students do not able to achieve empirical knowledge. Their
experimental attitude is not developed as they do not keep themselves
engaged in activity or in work oriented project. It is because they
are rarely engaged themselves in hands on activities. In the recent
modification of curriculum frame work, project works are included
in the Secondary syllabus, these project works are again neglected
by the teachers, and parents. They think that project work is
hampering the normal school activities. But the real truth is that
logical thinking, critical thinking, creative thinking and analytical
ability can be developed through project works. Secondary education
today does not help students to become self-sufficient and selfdependent
in future. Moreover, Problem solving and decision making
capacity is not grown. The students at this stage cannot get scope to
develop social awareness and inter personal relationship. Even this
education is not so related to the new challenges and changes in the
global perspectives. Secondary education has become completely out
of touch with the growing socio-economic problems stirring up in our
country in the present century.
In the present century student-teacher relationship is decreased
day by day. School teachers are not paid so respect. They are losing
their social dignity. In the perspectives of Secondary education what
noticed today are indiscipline, impatience, violence, lawlessness,
and hatred. Value erosion is a common phenomenon today. It is
noticed that decrease of human values, lack of self-confidence, lack
of self-sufficiency and lack of self- reliance prevail in the educational
scenario. The students of this crucial stage become easy victims of
mental insecurity, stress, depression, anxiety and consumerisation of
foreign culture etc. The life skills, such as the skills of Problem solving
attitude, Decision making capacity, Communication, Interpersonal
176 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
relation, Empathy, Social awareness, self-awareness, Coping up
with emotion and Stress, are not inculcated due to lack of actively
involvement of the learners in the Teaching-learning process. So ‘all
round drawing out of the best’-the goal of education is not fulfilled
properly. It is observed that problem of unemployment, Student’s
unrest, violation of human rights, violation of rules & regulations,
religious fanaticism, inhuman treatment to women, caste conflicts
and lack of national consciousness prevail to greater extent in the
present century due to lack of proper education The Researcher has
tried to find out the truth as to how the Gandhian Theories and
Principles of education have become the solution of all these crises
prevailed in every aspect of life. The crises in the field of education
particularly in Secondary education need to be solved through the
educational principles advocated by Mahatma Gandhi. The main
object of the research is to prove how the Gandhian concept of
education guides to make the secondary Education more purposive
and more objective based. This is an attempt to prove that Gandhian
principles and practices of education if observed in the following
aspects in Secondary education, a new dimension will be paved to
reach the goal of Secondary Education. The investigator has tried
to search out the implications of Gandhi’s views on the following
components of education to prove that the Secondary education will
be developed properly to prevent the value erosion in all aspects of
life if Gandhian thought is followed.
Aspects of Secondary Education
1. Meaning of education
2. Aims of education
3. Methods of teaching
4. Cognitive development through the development of 3Hs
(Head, Heart and Hand) instead of 3 Rs (Reading, writing and
Arithmetic)
5. Women education
6. Purity of heart Through Education
7. Spiritual development
8. Basic education
9. Sustainable development and Gandhi’s Frame work through
education
10. Values in Gandhian thought in secondary education 260
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 177
™™Meaning of Education : Mahatma Gandhi defined the term
‘Education’ as the ‘all round drawing out of the best in child
and man’ Mahatma Gandhi gave emphasis on physical, mental
and spiritual development. It is found that more emphasis is to
be given on physical, mental and spiritual development in the
Secondary level of education and present curriculum needs to be
designed accordingly. Soul Force and will force is to be developed
if Spiritual development occurs. The researcher has viewed that
co curricular activities need to be given more importance than
curricular activities. It is assessed that Education at Secondary
stage of education could be revolutionized if physical, mental
and spiritual development of students is considered more
important without which education at this stage will become
fully meaningless and become out of touch of the present day
need. Gandhian Philosophy of education will help to make the
Secondary education more effective and meaningful.
™™Aims of Education : According to mahatma Gandhi ‘Self
realization’ is the sumumbonum of life and education and it
helps to impart man making and character building education.
“Selfrealization develops inner potentialities and makes man a
true human being and hence it should be the ultimate goal of
education.” It is observed that ‘Self- realization’ of every human
being if achieved through education will bring a new dimension
for building up an ideal nation and new world order based on
Tolerance, Truth and Non-violence. The aim of Secondary
Education is to be fixed accordingly on Gandhian line and the
curriculum is to be designed accordingly to impart man making
and character building education. The researcher has cited that
‘Self-realization’ the ultimate aim of education is to be achieved
to enable the students to realize their weakness and strength
and to differentiate between evil and goodness. It is accomplished
that Self-realization’ is not the matter of abstract ideas and it
can be achieved through the inculcation of our ancient culture,
heritage and glorious traditional values. It is searched out
by the researcher that if the aim of education is achieved on
Gandhian line the objectives of imparting competency building
or efficiency building education will be fulfilled. So it is assessed
that the curriculum of Secondary education is to be designed
on the principle of activity to achieve the ultimate goal of ‘Selfrealization’
through self-activity of the pupil as proposed by
178 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Mahatma Gandhi.
™™Methods of Teaching : Mahatma Gandhi emphasized on ‘selflearning’.
He advocated that education should appear to the child
like ‘play’ He wrote in the Harijan, “The method adopted in the
institutions in India I do not call education, i.e. drawing out the
best in man, but a debauchery of the mind. It informs the mind
anyhow, whereas the method of training the mind through village
handicrafts from the very beginning as the central fact would
promote the real, disciplined development of the mind resulting
in conservation of the intellectual energy and indirectly also
the spiritual.” (Harijan, 5-6-’ 37, CW 67, Publications Division,
Ministry of Information and Broad Casting, Government of India)
The educational thought of Mahatma Gandhi shows that ‘Self–
learning’ through the hands on activities and through productive
works is necessary and in this way lessons of different subjects
may be taught integrally in the Secondary level of education.
It is observed that ‘Self-learning’ or auto-learning by doing
something or handling a craft relating to subject knowledge of
Secondary education, is a virtual way of ‘Mastery Learning’.
Project method and work shop method accepted by M.K. Gandhi
are considered the best methods of teaching. These methods
develop experimental attitude of the Students. So it is cited by the
researcher that Project method and work shop method of teaching
are to be followed by the teachers of Secondary stage with other
methods of teaching. Method of teaching is to be rationalized and
realistic keeping pace with the realities of life. The researcher
has opined that group activities need to be considered as a part of
teaching for inculcating group spirit and co-operative behaviour.
Experimental and Demonstrative methods are also very effective.
So these methods draw attention. The researcher has followed
Gandhian views and suggested that these methods of teaching
will be effective and fruitful only when a cordial healthy relation
between students and teachers is established.
™™Cognitive Development : Mahatma Gandhi advocated that
development of Head, Heart and Hand is necessary for the
development of cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. It is
studied that Handling of a craft work for the development of work
habit helps to gain practical knowledge and dignity of labour. It is also
revealed that Hands on activities develop Affective and Psychomotor
domain. It is assessed that Hands on activities cannot be neglected
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 179
as the way of learning in Secondary stage. It is observed by the
researcher that Cognitive aspects of learning are developed through
the development of 3 Hs (Head, Heart and hand) on which Mahatma
Gandhi categorically emphasized. The researcher has shown that
Development of Head, Heart and Hand helps to develop the cognitive
domain that includes knowledge, comprehension, application and
ability to achieve the power of analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The
researcher has viewed that the activity based education on Gandhian
line brings the development of 3Hs and students able to achieve
Factual, Conceptual, Procedural and Meta cognitive knowledge. It
is searched out that if students are engaged in Hands on activities
they able to remember and understand the fact. They become more
confident in applying, analyzing, evaluating the concept of the content
taught. The researcher has followed Gandhi’s educational thought
and showed that learning is to be considered as inner psychological
functioning such as perception, concept formation, attention, problem
solving and higher mental processes. ‘Hands on’ activities help the
learners in reacting to the specific cognitive structure to get a clear
picture of the environment. It is searched out that the task of a
learner should be purposive and meaningful that leads him or her
towards achieving a definite goal. So the curriculum is to be designed
for the development of Head, Heart and hand. In this way they will
be able to explore new ideas and thought.
™™Women Education : Mahatma Gandhi opined that women
should be given same facilities in education and even special
facilities where necessary. Boys and girls should have coeducation
during the second stage (19 to 16 years) as far as
possible. According to him, “Man and woman are of equal
rank but they are not identical. They are a peerless pair being
supplementary to one another; each helps the other, so that
without the one the existence of the other cannot be conceived,
and therefore it follows as a necessary corollary from these facts
that anything that will impair the status of either of them will
involve the equal ruin of them both. In framing any scheme of
women’s education this cardinal truth must be constantly kept
in mind” (Speeches and Writings of Mahatma Gandhi, 425,
426; 20- 2-1918, Publications Division, Ministry of Information
and Broad Casting, Government of India). The researcher has
found that same facilities of education need to be arranged for
both Boys and Girls to spread mass education and to promote
180 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
democratic ideals such as equality of status and of opportunity.
The researcher has observed that school curriculum has failed to
reinforce the self-confidence of girls who manage to gain access
to school. Gender inequality is rooted in individual and social
bias against girls which promotes gender gaps in education. It is
observed by the researcher that gender biasness is reflected in the
curricular subjects. Schools also sometimes reflect and perpetuate
patriarchal influence which creates differential socialization of
girls and boys in the arena of education. The National Curriculum
Framework, 2005 visualizes the role of education that empowers
both boys and girls equally. Mahatma Gandhi favored equal
opportunity for both boys and girls in education. So the researcher
has recognized to remove all kinds of stereotypes in curricular
areas to achieve the goal of gender equality. It is suggested that
appropriate teaching-learning process need to be developed in
Secondary education to contribute to prepare children to respect
the members of the other and the same sex, and enable them
for better understanding, mutual acceptance of each other and
respectful behaviour. The researcher has to cite that the teachers
of Secondary education should be properly trained about some
key concepts associated with genders to analyze teachinglearning
materials and the existing value system of society from a gender
perspective to promote gender equality. It is also revealed that
Special facilities to the girls in respect of admission, promotion
and special curriculum may be arranged for spreading women
education in our country. Researcher recommends Co-education
at Secondary and Higher Secondary level as Gandhi recommended
for such education during adolescence for the sake of intra
-personal development and socialization. Teachers interviewed
have strongly proposed that National Progress is hampered if
women education is neglected. So the researcher has suggested
that women education should be given more emphasis as Gandhi
recommended.
Purity of Heart Through Education
In this dimension a portion of speech at Voorhees College, valor,
1927 was examined.
Gandhii delivered his views and said, ‘Purity of Personal life
is the one indispensible condition for building a sound education
system. Absolute purity of heart should be the end of education’
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 181
Materialistic attitude and a tendency of consumerization are
harmful to civilization. Value based education for Purity of heart,
purity of thought and purity of mind is necessary today to save the
civilization from human made disaster. The study reveals the truth
that Purity of heart makes the learner a true human being of ideal
character and through the transmission of our ancient culture and
heritage, this aim could be achieved. So it is assessed that through
the transmission of value education and moral education Purity
of heart could be achieved and this true development is the end of
education. Mahatma Gandhi believed that ‘purity of heart should be
the end of education’
™™Spiritual Development : According to M. K. Gandhi Spiritual
Training is the heart of Education which is required for making a
complete human being. He said, “To me religion means Truth and
Ahimsa or rather Truth alone, because .Truth includes Ahimsa,
Ahimsa being the necessary and indispensable means for its
discovery. Therefore anything that promotes the practice of these
virtues is a means for imparting religious education and the best
way to do this, in my opinion, is for the teachers rigorously to
practise these virtues in their own person. Their very association
with the boys, whether on the playground or in the class room will
then give the pupils a fine training in these fundamental virtues?
So much for instruction is the universal essentials of religion. A
curriculum of religious instruction should include a study of the
tenets of faiths other than one’s own.”(Young India, 6-12-’28) Cited
in Education, Gandhi and Man (ed.). Akhtarul Wasey and Farhat
Ehsas. It is assessed that spiritual development or awakening of
Soul Force is needed for controlling value related crises such as
indiscipline, violence, disobedience, dishonesty,hatred etc. in the
field of education. Spiritual values enable our learners to gain
self sufficiency, true knowledge, love for truth and non-violence.
This end of education can be achieved if Secondary education is
moulded on the way of Gandhian line. It is said that spiritual
values generate true knowledge which is necessary today to
make every child a resource for the development of individuality,
community, society, nation and the humanity. Spiritual faculties
of child develop purity of thoughts and attitude towards serving
to humanity.
™™Basic Education : M. K. Gandhi’s Revolutionary proposal
was to introduce craft centric education in Secondary schools.
182 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
It brings all round development in child. This education makes
the base of life. So it is called Basic education as he wanted
total involvement of life from all dimensions-Physical, social,
economic, cultural, aesthetic, religious and moral. According to
him, “I would therefore begin the child’s education by teaching it
a useful handicraft and enabling it to produce from the moment
it begins its training. I hold that the highest development of the
mind and the soul is possible under such a system of education.
Only every handicraft has to be taught not merely mechanically
as is done today but scientifically, i.e. the child should know
the why and the wherefore of every process. I am not writing
this without some confidence, because it has the backing of
experience.” (Harijan , 31-7-’ 37) Cited in Educational Philosohy
of Mhatma Gandhi. SingY.K.(2009). Training through manual
labour develops various life skills. When a child is kept himself
or herself engaged in performing hands on activities related
to Socially Useful Productive Works, he or she easily achieves
several skills like Problem solving, decision making, creative
thinking, critical thinking, communicative skill, interpersonal
relationship, social awareness, empathy, coping with emotion
and skill of stress management. Learning of a handicraft with
related subject’s knowledge makes students self-supporting and
respectful to dignity of labour. Work oriented education makes a
learner sociable in nature. It enables the students to realize that
school based activities are related to the needs of the society and
for the progress of the society. Socially useful productive works
bring social awareness and communicative skills among the
students. They work for the social awakening, social harmony
and National integration. In a word, the process of socialization
is completed if the curriculum of Secondary education is designed
activity based. Sublimation of instincts is possible through the
work oriented education. Intrinsic motivation is a part of activity
centered education which motivates students for innovative
thinking and creative ideas. In Basic education there was a craft
in the centre and other subject knowledge related to the craft was
taught. The researcher recommends that the subjects taught in
the secondary level should be activity related and project works of
every subject need to be selected on the basis of social utility. So
it is found that activity oriented education needs to be introduced
and given emphasis in Secondary education.
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 183
™™Sustainable Development and Gandhi’s Frame Work
Through Education : Gandhian views on education harmonizes
the economic, political, social ,moral and religious aspects of life in
the context of man’s rising aspirations to sustain life in harmony
with men and nature. ‘Naitalim Education’ is the process of a
new type of education which makes balance between ecology and
technology to ensure labour intensive production and proper use
of resources. So it is assessed that the curriculum of Secondary
education is to be designed on Gandhian line to impart the essence
of sustainable development that lies in his philosophy. If the values
of sustainable development are inculcated in the curriculum
of Secondary education on Gandhian line, the students of this
stage will learn the main objectives of sustainable development
and will come forward to save the nature and natural resources.
Gandhi’s views on education generate the ideas of sustainable
development – the proper and minimum use of natural resources
for the benefit of future generation. The environment education
introduced in Secondary level is to be designed on Gandhian line
to sustain life in harmony with men and nature.
™™Values in Gandhian Thought and Secondary Education :
It is revealed that values of Gandhian thought in respect to the
methods of teaching, discipline, role of teachers and students,
curriculum, co-curricular activities and evaluation need to be
followed in the present system of Secondary Education to impart
man making and character building education. His thought
stimulates the spirit of ‘selflearning’, ‘Self-confidence’, ‘Selfreliance’,
‘self- discipline’, ‘self evaluation’ ‘dignity of labour’ value
of ‘Truth, Beauty and goodness’, work –attitude, work-culture
and service to humanity. It is found that total development of
personality could be possible through the implication of curricular
and co-curricular activities suggested by Mahatma Gandhi in
secondary education. Thus Gandhian Philosophy and thought
on education had brought a new dimension and fundamental
changes in the Teaching-learning process for building up of a
new social order based on tolerance, truth and non-violence.
The Revelation of Gandhian Philosophy and His Own Views
In the 21st century when the civilization is on the brink of crises
and the human being is hanker after wealth, power and fame,
revelation of Gandhi’s own views on Truth, Religion, Non-violence,
Society, Values and culture is needed to realize the true meaning of
184 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
human activities and the true concept of human civilization.
™™The Gospel of Truth : WHAT…is Truth ? A difficult question;
but I have solved it for myself by saying that it is what the voice
within tells you. How then, you ask, [do] different people think of
different and contrary truths? Well, seeing that the human mind
works through innumerable media and that the evolution of the
human mind is not the same for all, it follows that what may
be truth for one may be untruth for another, and hence those
who have made these experiments have come to the conclusion
that there are certain conditions to be observed in making those
experiments.
It is because we have at the present moment everybody claiming
the right of conscience without going through any discipline
whatsoever, and there is so much untruth being delivered to a
bewildered world. All that I can in true humility present to you is
that Truth is not to be found by anybody who has not got an abundant
sense of humility. If you would swim on the bosom of the ocean of
Truth, you must reduce yourself to a zero. (YI, 31-12-1931, p428)
Truth and Love-ahimsa-is the only thing that counts. Where this
is present, everything rights itself in the end. This is a law to which
there is no exception. (YI, 18-8-1927, p265)
™™Sovereign Principle : For me truth is the sovereign principle,
which includes numerous other principles. This truth is not
only truthfulness in word, but truthfulness in thought also, and
not only the relative truth of our conception, but the Absolute
Truth, the Eternal Principle, that is God. There are innumerable
definitions of God, because His manifestations are innumerable.
They overwhelm me with wonder and awe and for a moment
stun me. But I worship God as Truth only. I have not yet found
Him, but I am seeking after Him. I am prepared to sacrifice the
things dearest to me in pursuit of this quest. Even if the sacrifice
demanded be my very life, I hope I may be prepared to give it.
But as long as I have not realized this Absolute Truth, so long
must I hold by the relative truth as I have conceived it. That
relative truth must, meanwhile, be my beacon, my shield and
buckler. Though this path is strait and narrow and sharp as the
razor’s edge, for me it has been the quickest and easiest. Even my
Himalayan blunders have seemed trifling to me because I have
kept strictly to this path. For the path has saved me from coming
to grief, and I have gone forward according to my light. Often
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 185
in my progress I have had faint glimpses of the Absolute Truth,
God, and daily the conviction is growing upon me that He alone
is real and all else is unreal.
™™Quest for Truth : .....The further conviction has been growing
upon me that whatever is possible for me is possible even for a child,
and I have found sound reasons for saying so. The instruments
for the quest of Truth are as simple as they are difficult. They
may appear quite impossible to an arrogant person, and quite
possible to an innocent child. The seeker after Truth should be
humbler than the dust. The world crushes the dust under its feet,
but the seeker after Truth should so humble himself that even
the dust could crush him. Only then, and not till then, will he
have a glimpse of Truth. (A, p. xv)
Truth is like a vast tree, which yields more and more fruit the
more you nurture it. The deeper the search in the mine of truth
the richer the discovery of the gems buried there, in the shape of
openings for an even greater variety of service. (ibid, p159)
I think it is wrong to expect certainties in this world, where all
else but God that is Truth is an uncertainty. All that appears and
happens about and around is uncertain, transient. But there is a
Supreme Being hidden therein as a Certainty, and one would be
blessed if one could catch a glimpse of that certainty and hitch one’s
wagon to it. The quest for that Truth is the summum bonum of life.
(ibid, p184)
In the march towards Truth, anger, selfishness, hatred, etc.,
naturally give way, for otherwise Truth would be impossible to
attain. A man who is swayed by passions may have good enough
intentions, may be truthful in word, but he will never find the Truth.
A successful search for Truth means complete deliverance from the
dual throng such as of love and hate, happiness and misery. (ibid,
pp254-5)
™™Vision of Truth : To see the universal and all-pervading spirit
of Truth face to face one must be able to love the meanest of
creation as oneself. And a man who aspires after that cannot
afford to keep out of any field of life. That is why my devotion
to Truth has drawn me into the field of politics; and I can say
without the slightest hesitation, and yet in all humility, that
those who say that religion has nothing to do with politics do not
know what religion means. (ibid, pp370-1)
186 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
My uniform experience has convinced me that there is no other
God than Truth… The little fleeting glimpses… that I have been
able to have of Truth can hardly convey an idea of the indescribable
luster of Truth, a million times more intense than that of the sun we
daily see with our eyes. (YI, 7-2-1929, p42)
In fact, what I have caught is only the faintest gleam of that
mighty effulgence. But this much I can say with assurance, as a
result of all my experiments, that a perfect vision of Truth can only
follow a complete realization of ahimsa. (ibid) Truth resides in every
human heart, and one has to search for it there, and to be guided by
truth as one sees it. But no one has a right to coerce others to act
according to his own view of truth. (H, 24-11-1933, p6)
Absolute Truth It is not given to man to know the whole Truth.
His duty lies in living up to the truth as he sees it, and in doing so,
to resort to the purest means, i.e., to nonviolence.(ibid)
God alone knows absolute truth. Therefore, I have often said,
Truth is God. It follows that man, a finite being, cannot know
absolute truth. (H, 7-4-1946,p70)
Nobody in this world possesses absolute truth. This is God’s
attribute alone. Relative truth is all we know. Therefore, we can
only follow the truth as we see it. Such pursuit of truth cannot lead
anyone astray. (H, 2-6-1946, p167)
Truth and I I have in my life never been guilty of saying things
I did not mean-my nature is to go straight to the heart and, if often I
fail in doing so for the time being, I know that Truth will ultimately
make itself heard and felt, as it has often done in my experience. (YI,
20-8-1925, pp285-6)
Let hundreds like me perish, but let Truth prevail. Let us not
reduce the standards of Truth even by a hair’s breadth for judging
erring mortals like myself. (A, p xv)
In judging myself I shall try to be as harsh as truth, as I want
others also to be. Measuring myself by that standard I must exclaim
with Surdas.
™™Where is there a wretch ?
™™So wicked and loathsome as I ?
™™I have forsaken by Maker,
™™So faithless have I been. (ibid, p xvi)
My Errors I may be a despicable person, but when Truth speaks
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 187
through me, I am invincible. (EF, p71)
I am devoted to none but Truth and I owe no discipline to anybody
but Truth. (H, 25-5-1935, p115)
I have no God to serve but Truth. (H, 15-4-1939, p87) I have no
strength except what comes from insistence on truth. Non-violence,
too, springs from the same insistence. (H, 7-4-1946, p70)
I am a humble but very earnest seeker after Truth. And in my
search, I take all fellow-seekers in uttermost confidence so that
I may know my mistakes and correct them. I confess that I have
often erred in my estimates and judgments… And inasmuch as in
every case I retraced my steps, no permanent harm was done. On
the contrary, the fundamental truth of non-violence has been made
infinitely more manifest than it ever has been, and the country has
in no way been permanently injured. (YI, 21-4-1927, p126)
I am a learner myself, I have no axe to grind, and wherever I see
a truth, I take it up and try to act up to it. (YI, 11-8-1927, p250)
I believe that, if in spite of the best of intentions, one is led into
committing mistakes, they do not really result in harm to the world
or, for the matter of that, any individual. God always saves the world
from the consequences of unintended errors or men who live in fear
of Him.
Those who are likely to be misled by my example would have
gone that way all the same even if they had not known of my action.
For, in the final analysis, a man is guided in his conduct by his own
inner promptings, though the example of others might sometimes
seem to guide him. But be it as it may, I know that the world has
never had to suffer on account of my errors because they were all due
to my ignorance. It is my firm belief that not one of my known errors
was willful. (YI, 3-1-1929, p6)
Indeed, what may appear to be an obvious error to one may
appear to another as pure wisdom. He cannot help himself even if he
is under a hallucination.Truly as Tulsidas said: ‘Even though there
never is silver in mother o’ pearl nor water in the sunbeams, while
the illusion of silver in the shinning shell or that of water in the
beam lasts, no power on earth can shake the deluded man free from
the spell.’ Even so must it be with men like me who, it may be, are
labouring under a great hallucination. Surely God will pardon them
and the world should bear with them. Truth will assert itself in the
end. (ibid)
188 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Truth never damages a cause that is just. (H, 10-11-1946, p389)
Life is an aspiration. Its mission is to strive after perfection, which
is selfrealization. The ideal must not be lowered because of our
weaknesses or imperfections. I am painfully conscious of both in me.
The silent cry daily goes out to Truth to help me to remove these
weakness and imperfections of mine. (H, 22-6-1935, p145)
No Abandonment of Truth Believe me when I tell you, after 60
years of personal experience, that the only real misfortune is to
abandon the path of truth. If you but realize this, your one prayer to
God will always be to enable you to put up, without flinching, with
any number of trials and hardships that may fall to your lot in the
pursuit of truth. (H, 28-7-1946, p243)
Truth alone will endure, all the rest will be swept away before
the tide of time.
I must, therefore, continue to bear testimony to Truth even if I
am forsaken by all. Mine may today be a voice in the wilderness, but
it will be heard when all other voices are silenced, if it is the voice of
Truth. (H, 15-8-1946, p284)
A man of faith will remain steadfast to truth, even-though the
whole world might appear to be enveloped in falsehood. (H, 22-9-
1946, p322)
When it is relevant, truth has to be uttered, however unpleasant
it may be.
Irrelevance is always untruth and should never be uttered. (H,
21-12-1947, p473)
Truth is God : There is an indefinable mysterious Power that
pervades everything. I feel it, though I do not see it. It is this unseen
Power which makes itself felt and yet defies all proof, because it
is so unlike all that I perceive through my senses. It transcends
the senses. But it is possible to reason out the existence of God to a
limited extent.
I do dimly perceive that whilst everything around me is ever
changing, everdying, there is underlying all that change a Living
Power that is changeless, that holds all together, that creates,
dissolves, and recreates. That informing Power or Spirit is God.
And since nothing else I see merely through the senses can or will
persist, He alone is. And is this Power benevolent or malevolent? I
see it as purely benevolent. For I can see, that in the midst of death
life persists, in the midst of untruth truth persists, in the midst of
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 189
darkness light persists. Hence I gather that God is Life,
Truth, Light. He is Love. He is the Supreme Good. I confess… that
I have no argument to convince… through reason. Faith transcends
reason. All I can advise… is not to attempt the impossible. I cannot
account for the existence of evil by any rational method. To want
to do so is to be co-equal with God. I am, therefore, humble enough
to recognize evil as such; and I call God long-suffering and patient
precisely because He permits evil in the world. I know that He has
no evil in Him and yet if there is evil, He is the author of it and yet
untouched by it.
I know, too, that I shall never know God if I do not wrestle with
and against evil even at the cost of life itself. I am fortified in the
belief by my own humble and limited experience. The purer I try to
become the nearer to God I feel myself to be. How much more should
I be near to Him when my faith is not a mere apology, as it is today,
but has become as immovable as the Himalayas and as white and
bright as the snows on their peaks? (YI, 11-10-1928, pp340-1)
My Faith I can easily put up with the denial of the world, but any
denial by me of my God is unthinkable. (YI, 23-2-1922, p112)
I know that I can do nothing. God can do everything. O God,
make me Thy fit instrument and use me as thou wilt! (YI, 9-10-1924,
p329)
I have not seen Him, neither have I known Him. I have made the
world’s faith in God my own and as my faith is ineffaceable, I regard
that faith as amounting to experience. However, as it may be said
that to describe faith as experience is to tamper with truth, it may
perhaps be more correct to say that I have no word for characterizing
my belief in God. (A, p206)
I am surer of His existence than of the fact that you and I are
sitting in this room. Then I can also testify that I may live without
air and water but not without Him. You may pluck out my eyes, but
that cannot kill me. You may chop off my nose, but that will not kill
me. But blast my belief in God, and I am dead.
You may call this a superstition, but I confess it is a superstition
that I hug, even as I used to hug the name of Rama in my childhood
when there was any cause of danger or alarm. That was what an old
nurse had taught me. (H, 14-5-1938, p109)
I believe that we can all become messengers of God, if we cease
to fear man and seek only God’s Truth. I do believe I am seeking
190 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
only God’s Truth and have lost all fear of man. …I have no special
revelation of God’s will. My firm belief is that He reveals Himself
daily to every human being, but we shut our ears to the ‘still small
voice’. We shut our eyes to the Pillar of Fire in front of us. I realize
His omnipresence. (YI, 25-5-1921, pp161-2)
Some of my correspondents seem to think that I can work
wonders. Let me say as a devotee of truth that I have no such gift.
All the power I may have comes from God. But He does not work
directly. He works through His numberless agencies. (H, 8-10-1938,
p285)
Nature of God To me God is Truth and Love; God is ethics and
morality; God is fearlessness.
God is the source of Light and Life and yet He is above and beyond
all these. God is conscience. He is even the atheism of the atheist.
For in His boundless love God permits the atheist to live. He is the
searcher of hearts. He transcends speech and reason. He knows us
and our hearts better than we do ourselves. He does not take us at
our word, for He knows that we often do not mean it, some knowingly
and others unknowingly. He is a personal God to those who need
His personal presence. He is embodied to those who need His touch.
He is the purest essence. He simply is to those who have faith. He
is all things to all men. He is in us and yet above and beyond us…
He cannot cease to be because hideous immoralities or inhuman
brutalities are committed in His name. He is long-suffering. He is
patient but He is also terrible. He is the most exacting personage in
the world and the world to come. He metes out the same measure
to us that we mete out to our neighbors-men and brutes. With Him
ignorance is no excuse. And withal He is ever forgiving, for He always
gives us the chance to repent. He is the greatest democrat the world
knows, for He leaves us ‘unfettered’ to make our own choice between
evil and good. He is the greatest tyrant ever known, for He often
dashes the cup from our lips and under cove of free will leaves us a
margin so wholly inadequate as to provide only mirth for Himself at
our expense. Therefore it is that Hinduism calls it all His sport-lila,
or calls it all an illusionmaya. We are not, He alone Is. And if we will
be, we must eternally sing His praise and do His will. Let us dance to
the tune of His bansi-lute, and all would be well. (YI, 5-3-1925, p81)
God is the hardest taskmaster I have known on this earth, and
He tries you through and through. And when you find that your faith
is failing or your body is failing you and you are sinking, He comes to
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 191
your assistance somehow or other and proves to you that you must
not lose your faith and that He is always at your beck and call, but
on His terms, not on your terms. So I have found. I cannot really
recall a single instance when, at the eleventh hour, He has forsaken
me. (SW, p1069)
In my early youth I was taught to repeat what in Hindu scriptures
are known as one thousand names of God. But these one thousand
names of God were by no means exhaustive. We believe-and I think
it is the truth-that God has as many names as there are creatures
and, therefore, we also say that God is nameless and, since God has
many forms, we also consider Him formless, and since He speaks to
us through many tongues, we consider Him to be speechless and so
on. And so when I came to study Islam, I found that Islam too had
many names for God.
I would say with those who say God is Love, God is Love. But
deep down in me I used to say that though God may be Love, God
is Truth, above all. If it is possible for the human tongue to give the
fullest description of God, I have come to the conclusion that, for
myself, God is Truth. But two years ago I went a step further and
said that Truth is God. You will see the fine distinction between
the two statements, viz., that God is Truth and Truth is God. And
I came to the conclusion after a continuous and relentless search
after Truth which began nearly fifty years ago. I then found that the
nearest approach to Truth was through love. But I also found that
love has many meanings in the English language at least and that
human love in the sense of passion could become a degrading thing
also. I found too that love in the sense of ahimsa had only a limited
number of votaries in the world. But I never found a double meaning
in connection with truth and not even atheists had demurred to
the necessity or power of truth.But, in their passion for discovering
truth, the atheists have not hesitated to deny the very existence of
God-from their own point of view, rightly. And it was because of
this reasoning that I saw that, rather than say that God is Truth, I
should say that Truth is God. (YI, 31-12-1931, p427-8)
God is Truth, but God is many other things also. That is why
I say Truth is God…. Only remember that Truth is not one of the
many qualities that we name. It is the living embodiment of God, it
is the only Life, and I identify Truth with the fullest life, and that is
how it becomes a concrete thing, for God is His whole creation, the
whole Existence, and service of all that exists-Truthis service of God.
192 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
(H, 25-5-1935, p115)
Perfection is the attribute of the Almighty, and yet what a great
democrat He is! What an amount of wrong and humbug He suffers
on our part! He even suffers us insignificant creatures of His to
question His very existence, though He is in every atom about us,
around us and within us. But He has reserved to Himself the right of
becoming manifest to whomsoever He chooses. He is a Being without
hands and feet and other organs, yet he can see Him to whom He
chooses to reveal Himself. (H, 14-11-1936, p314)
God Through Service If I did not feel the presence of God within
me, I see so much of misery and disappointment every day that I
would be a raving maniac and my destination would be the Hooghli.
(YI, 6-8-1925, p275)
If I am to identify myself with the grief of the least in India, aye,
if I have the power, the least in the world, let me identify myself
with the sins of the little ones who are under my care. And so doing
in all humility, I hope someday to see God—Truth-face to face. (YI,
3-12-1925, p422)
I am endeavoring to see God through service of humanity, for I
know that God is neither in heaven, nor down below, but in every
one. (YI, 4-8-1927, p247-8)
I am a part and parcel of the whole, and I cannot find Him apart
from the rest of humanity. My countrymen are my nearest neighbors.
They have become so helpless, so resourceless, so inert that I must
concentrate on serving them. If I could persuade myself that I should
find Him in a Himalayan cave, I would proceed there immediately.
But I know that I cannot find Him apart from humanity. (H, 29-8-
1936, p226)
I claim to know my millions. All the 24 hours of the day I am with
them. They are my first care and last because I recognize no God
except the God that is to be found in the hearts of the dumb millions.
They do not recognize His presence; I do. And I worship the God that
is Truth or Truth which is God through the service of these millions.
(H, 11-3-1939, p44)
Guide and Protector I must go… with God as my only guide. He
is a jealous Lord. He will allow no one to share His authority. One
has, therefore, to appear before Him in all one’s weakness, emptyhanded
and in a spirit of full surrender, and then He enables you
to stand before a whole world and protects you from all harm. (YI,
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 193
3-9-1931, p247)
I have learned this one lesson-that what is impossible with man
is child’s play with God and if we have faith in that Divinity which
presides on the destiny of the meanest of His creation, I have no
doubt that all things are possible; and in that final hope, I live and
pass my time and endeavor to obey His will. (YI, 19-11-1931, p361)
Even in darkest despair, where there seems to be no helper and no
comfort in the wide, wide world, His Name inspires us with strength
and puts all doubts and despairs to flight. The sky may be overcast
today with clouds, but a fervent prayer to Him is enough to dispel
them. It is because of prayer that I have known no disappointment.
I have known no despair. Why then should you give way to it?
Let us pray that He may cleanse our hearts of pettiness, meanness
and deceit and He will surely answer our prayers. Many I know have
always turned to that unfailing source of strength. (H, 1-6-1935,
p123)
I have seen and believe that God never appears to you in person,
but in action which can only account for your deliverance in your
darkest hour. (H, 10-12- 1938, p373)
Individual worship cannot be described in words. It goes on
continuously and even unconsciously. There is not a moment when I
do not feel the presence of a Witness whose eye misses nothing and
with whom I strive to keep in tune. I have never found Him lacking
in response. I have found Him nearest at hand when the horizon
seemed darkest in my ordeals in jails when it was not allsmooth
sailing for me. I cannot recall a moment in my life when I had a
sense of desertion by God. (H, 24-12-1938, p395)
Self-realization I believe it to be possible for every human being
to attain to that blessed and indescribable, sinless state in which he
feels within himself the presence of God to the exclusion of everything
else. (YI, 17-11-1921, p368)
What I want to achieve, what I have been striving and pining
to achieve…, is self-realization, to see God face to face, to attain
moksha. I live and move and have my being in pursuit of this goal.
All that I do by way of speaking and writing and all my ventures in
the political field are directed to this same end. (A, p xiv)
For it is an unbroken torture to me that I am still so far from
Him, who, as I fully know, governs every breath of my life, and whose
offspring I am. I know that it is the evil passions within that keep me
194 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
so far from Him, and yet I cannot get away from them. (ibid, p xvi)
This belief in God has to be based on faith, which transcends
reason. Indeed, even the so-called realization has at bottom an
element of faith without which it cannot be sustained. In the very
nature of things it must be so. Who can transgress the limitations
of his being? I hold that complete realization is impossible in this
embodied life. Nor is it necessary. A living immovable faith is all
that is required for reaching the full spiritual height attainable by
human beings. God is not outside this earthly case of ours. Therefore,
exterior proof is not of much avail, if any at all. We must ever fail
to perceive Him through the senses, because He is beyond them.
We can feel Him if we will but withdraw ourselves from the senses.
The divine music is incessantly going on within ourselves, but the
loud senses drown the delicate music, which is unlike and infinitely
superior to anything we can perceive or hear with our senses. (H,
13-6-1936, pp140-1)
Truthand Beauty
Inwardness of Art There are two aspects of things - the outward
and the inward….The outward has no meaning except in so far as it
helps the inward. All true Art is thus an expression of the soul. The
outward forms have value only in so far as they are the expression of
the inner spirit of man. (YI, 13-11-1924, p.377)
I know that many call themselves artists, and are recognized as
such, and yet in their works there is absolutely no trace of the soul’s
upward urge and unrest. (ibid)
All true Art must help the soul to realize its inner self. In my
own case, I find that I can do entirely without external forms in my
soul’s realization. I can claim, therefore, that there is truly efficient
Art in my life, though you might not see what you call works of Art
about me. My room may have blank walls; and I may even dispense
with the roof, so that I may gaze out at the starry heavens overhead
that stretch in an unending expanse. What conscious Art of man
can give me the panoramic scenes that open out before me, when I
look up to the sky above with all its shining stars? This, however,
does not mean that I refuse to accept the value of productions of
Art, generally accepted as such, but only that I personally feel how
inadequate these are compared with the eternal symbols of beauty
in Nature. These productions of man’s Art have their value only in
so far as they help the soul onward towards self-realization. (ibid)
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 195
Truth First Truth is the first thing to be sought for, and Beauty
and Goodness will then be added unto you. Jesus was, to my mind,
a supreme artist because he saw and expressed Truth; and so was
Muhammad, the Koran being, the most perfect composition in all
Arabic literature - at any rate, that is what scholars say. It is because
both of them strove first for Truth that the grace of expression
naturally came in and yet neither Jesus not Muhammad wrote on
Art. That is the Truth and Beauty I crave for, live for, and would die
for. (YI, 20-11-1924, p.386)
Art for the Millions Here too, just as elsewhere, I must think in
terms of the millions. And to the millions we cannot give that training
to acquire a perception of Beauty in such a way as to see Truth in
it. Show them Truth first and they will see Beauty afterwards…
Whatever can be useful to those starving millions is beautiful to my
mind. Let us give today first the vital things of life and all the graces
and ornaments of life will follow. (ibid) I want art and literature that
can speak to the millions. (H, 14-11-1936, p.135) Art to be art must
soothe. (YI, 27-5-1926, p.196)
After all, Art can only be expressed not through inanimate powerdriven
machinery designed for mass-production, but only through
the delicate living touch of the hands of men and women. (YI, 14-3-
1929, p.86)
Inner Purity True art takes note not merely of form but also of
what lies behind. There is an art that kills and an art that gives life…
True art must be evidence of happiness, contentment and purity of
its authors. (YI, 11-8-1921, p. 253)
True beauty after all consists in purity of heart. (A, p. 228) I love
music and all the other arts, but I do not attach such value to them as
is generally done. I cannot, for example, recognize the value of those
activities which require technical knowledge for their understanding.
Life is greater than all art. I would go even further and declare that
the man whose life comes nearest to perfection is the greatest artist;
for what is art without the sure foundation and framework of a noble
life? (AG, pp. 65-66) We have somehow accustomed ourselves to the
belief that art is independent of the purity of private life. I can say
with all the experience at my command that nothing could be more
untrue. As I am nearing the end of my earthly life, I can say that
purity of life, is the highest and truest art. The art of producing good
music from a cultivated voice can be achieved by many, but the art
of producing that music from the harmony of a pure life is achieved
196 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
very rarely. (H, 19-2-1938, p. 10)
Beauty in Truth I see and find Beauty in Truth or through Truth.
All Truths, not merely true ideas, but truthful faces, truthful pictures,
or songs, are highly beautiful. People generally fail to see Beauty in
Truth, the ordinary man runs away from it and becomes blind to the
beauty in it. Whenever men begin to see Beauty in Truth, then true
Art will arise. (YI, 13-11-1924, p. 377)
To a true artist only that face is beautiful which, quite apart
from its exterior, shines with the Truth within the soul. There
is… no Beauty apart from Truth. On the other hand, Truth may
manifest itself in forms, which may not be outwardly beautiful at all.
Socrates, we are told, was the most truthful man of his time, and yet
his features are said to have been the ugliest in Greece.
To my mind he was beautiful, because all his life was a striving
after Truth, and you may remember that his outward form did
not prevent Phidias from appreciating the beauty of Truth in him,
though as an artist he was accustomed to see Beauty in outward
forms also. (ibid) Truth and Untruth often co-exist; good and evil
are often found together. In an artist also not seldom [do] the right
perception of things and the wrong coexist. Truly beautiful creations
come when right perception is at work. If these monuments are rare
in life, they are also rare in Art. (ibid)
These beauties [‘a sunset or a crescent moon that shines amid
the stars at night’] are truthful, inasmuch as they make me think of
the Creator at the back of them. How else could these be beautiful,
but for the Truth that is in the center of creation? When I admire
the wonder of a sunset or the beauty of the moon, my soul expands
in worship of the Creator. I try to see Him and His mercies in all
these creations. But even the sunsets and sunrises would be mere
hindrances if they did not help me to think of Him. Anything which
is a hindrance to the flight of the soul is a delusion and a snare; even
like the body, which often does hinder you in the path of salvation.
(H, 13-11-1924, p. 379)
Why can’t you see the beauty of colour in vegetables? And then,
there is beauty in the speckles sky. But no, you want the colours of
the rainbow, which is a mere optical illusion. We have been taught to
believe that what is beautiful need not be useful and what is useful
cannot be beautiful. I want to show that what is useful can also be
beautiful. (H, 7-4-1946, p. 67)
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 197
The Gospel of Fearlessness
Fearlessness Is the first requisite of spirituality. Cowards can
never be moral. (YI, 13-10-1921, p. 323)
Where there is fear there is no religion. (YI, 2-9-1926, p. 308)
Every reader of the Gita is aware that fearlessness heads the list
of the Divine Attributes enumerated in the 16th Chapter. Whether
this is merely due to the exigencies of metre, or whether the pride
of place has been deliberately yielded to fearlessness is more than
I can say. In my opinion, however, fearlessness richly deserves the
first rank assigned to it there, perhaps, by accident. Fearlessness
is a sine qua non for the growth of the other noble qualities. How
can one seek truth or cherish Love without fearlessness? As Pritam
has it, ‘The Path of Hari (the Lord) is the path of the brave, not of
cowards.’ Hari here means Truth, and the brave are those armed
with fearlessness, not with the sword, the rifle or other carnal
weapons, which are affected only by cowards. (YI, 11-9-1930, pp. 1-2)
Fearlessness connotes freedom from all external fear - fear
of disease, bodily injury or death, of dispossession, of losing one’s
nearest and dearest, of losing reputation or giving offence, and so
on. (ibid)
Attainment of Fearlessness Perfect fearlessness can be attained
only by him who has realized the Supreme, as it implies the height
of freedom from delusions. But one can always progress towards
this goal by determined and constant endeavour and by increasing
confidence in oneself…. As for the internal foes, we must ever walk
in their fear. We are rightly afraid of Animal Passion, Anger and the
like. External fears cease of their own accord when once we have
conquered these traitors within the camp. All fears revolve round the
body as the centre, and would, therefore, disappear as soon as one
got rid of the attachment for the body. We thus find that all fear is
the baseless fabric of our own vision. Fear has no place in our hearts
when we have shaken off the attachment for wealth, for family and
for the body. ‘Tena tyaktena bhunjithah’ (enjoy the things of the
earth by renouncing them) is a noble commandment. The wealth,
the family and the body will be there, just the same; we have only
to change our attitude to them. All these are not ours but God’s.
Nothing whatever in this world is ours. Even we ourselves are His.
Why then should we entertain any fears? The Upanishad, therefore,
directs us ‘to give up attachment for things while we enjoy them’.
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That is to say, we must be interested in them not as proprietors but
only as trustees. He on whose behalf we hold them will give us the
strength and the weapons requisite for defending them against all
comers. When we thus cease to be masters and reduce ourselves to
the rank of servants humbler than the very dust under our feet, all
fears will roll away like mists; we shall attain ineffable peace and
see Satya- Narayan (the God of Truth) face to face. (ibid)
Fear of God Let us fear God and we shall cease to fear man. (SW,
p. 130)
There is so much superstition and hypocrisy around that one is
afraid even to do the right thing. But if one gives way to fear, even
truth will have to be suppressed. The golden rule is to act fearlessly
upon what one believes to be right. (H, 2-6-1946, p. 160)
Fearlessness does not mean arrogance or aggressiveness. That in
itself is a sign of fear. Fearlessness presupposes calmness and peace
of mind. For that it is necessary to have a living faith in God. (H,
3-11-1946, p. 388)
Fear is a thing which I dislike. Why should one man be afraid of
another man?
Man should stand in fear of God alone, and then he can shed all
other fears. (H,5-1-1947, p. 477)
Each individual must be taught the art of self-defense. It is more
a mental state that has to be inculcated than that our bodies should
be trained for retaliation.
Our mental training has been one of feeling helpless. Bravery is
not a quality of the body, it is the soul. I have seen cowards encased
in tough muscle and rare courage in the frailest body… The weakest
of us physically must be taught the art of facing dangers and giving
a good account of ourselves. (YI, 20-10-1921, p. 335)
We stand on the threshold of twilight-whether morning or evening
twilight we know not. One is followed by the night, the other heralds
the dawn. If we want to see the dawning day after the twilight and
not the mournful night, it behaves everyone of us…to realize the
truth at this juncture, to stand for it against any odds and to preach
and practice it, at any cost, unflinchingly. (SW, p. 303)
We have chosen for our march towards freedom the ancient path
of truth and non-violence, and we must let God’s covenant, that those
who tread on the straight and narrow path shall never come to grief,
inspire us with faith and hope. (YI, 2-4-1931, p. 54)
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 199
In this country of self-suppression and timidity, almost bordering
on cowardice, we cannot have too much bravery, too much selfsacrifice…
I want… the greater bravery of the meek, the gentle and
the nonviolent, the bravery that will mount the gallows without
injuring, or harbouring any thought of injury to a single soul. (ibid,
p. 58)
There is no bravery greater than a resolute refusal to bend the
knee to an earthly power, no matter how great, and that, without
bitterness of spirit and in the fullness of faith that the spirit alone
lives, nothing else does. (H, 15-10- 1938, p. 291)
We have two choices before us. We can become a great military
power or, if we follow my way, we can become a great non-violent and
invincible power. In either case the first condition is the shedding of
all fear. (H, 26-10-1947, p. 382)
The Gospeloffaith
IT IS faith that steers us through stormy seas, faith that moves
mountains and faith that jumps across the ocean. That faith is
nothing but a living, wideawake consciousness of God within. He
who has achieved that faith wants nothing. Bodily diseased, he is
spiritually healthy; physically poor, he rolls in spiritual riches. (YI,
24-9-1925, p. 331)
Without faith this world would come to naught in a moment. True
faith is appropriation of the reasoned experience of people whom we
believe to have lived a life purified by prayer and penance. Belief,
therefore, in prophets or incarnations who have lived in remote ages
is not an idle superstition but a satisfaction of an inmost spiritual
want. (YI, 14-4-1927, p. 120)
Faith is not a delicate flower, which would wither under the
slightest stormy weather. Faith is like the Himalaya Mountains
which cannot possibly change. No storm can possibly remove the
Himalaya Mountains from their foundations. … And I want every
one of you to cultivate that faith in God and religion. (H, 26-1-1934,
p. 8)
Limitations of Reason Experience has humbled me enough to let
me realize the specific limitations of reason. Just as matter misplaced
becomes dirt, reason misused becomes lunacy.
Rationalists are admirable beings, rationalism is a hideous
monster when it claims for itself omnipotence. Attribution of
omnipotence to reason is as bad a piece of idolatry as is worship of
200 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
stock and stone believing it to be God. (YI, 14-10-1924, p. 359)
I plead not for the suppression of reason, but for a due recognition
of that in us which sanctifies reason itself. (ibid)
To me it is as plain as a pikestaff that, where there is an appeal
to reason pure and undefiled, there should be no appeal to authority
however great it may be. (YI, 26-9-1929, p. 316)
There are subjects where Reason cannot take us far and we have
to accept things on faith. Faith then does not contradict Reason but
transcends it. Faith is a kind of sixth sense which works in cases
which are without the purview of Reason. (H, 6-3-1937, p.26)
Meaning of Religion Let me explain what I mean by religion.
It is not the Hindu religion which I certainly prize above all other
religions, but the religion which transcends Hinduism, which changes
one’s very nature, which binds one indissolubly to the truth within
and which ever purifies. It is the permanent element in human
nature which counts no cost too great in order to find full expression
and which leaves the soul utterly restless until it has found itself,
known its Maker and appreciated the true correspondence between
the Maker and itself. (YI, 12-5-1920, p. 2) By religion, I do not
mean formal religion, or customary religion, but that religion which
underlies all religions, which brings us face to face with our Maker.
(MKG, p. 7)
My Religion My religion has no geographical limits. If I have a
living faith in it, it will transcend my love for India herself. (YI, 11-
8-1920, p. 4)
Mine is not a religion of the prison-house. It has room for the
least among God’s creation. But it is proof against insolence, pride of
race, religion or colour. (YI, 1-6-1921, p. 171)
There is undoubtedly a sense in which the statement is true
when I say that I hold my religion dearer than my country and that,
therefore, I am a Hindu first and nationalist after. I do not become on
that score a less nationalist than the best of them. I simply thereby
imply that the interests of my country are identical with those of my
religion. Similarly when I say that I prize my own salvation above
everything else, above the salvation of India, it does not mean that
my personal salvation requires a sacrifice of India’s political or any
other salvation. But it implies necessarily that the two go together.
(YI, 23-2-1922, p. 123)
This is the maxim of life which I have accepted, namely, that no
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 201
work done by any man, no matter how great he is, will really prosper
unless he has religious backing. (SW, pp. 377-8)
I have abundant faith in my cause and humanity. Indian humanity
is no worse than any other; possibly it is better. Indeed, the cause
presumes faith in human nature. Dark though the path appears,
God will light it and guide my steps, if I have faith in His guidance
and humility enough to acknowledge my helplessness without that
infallible guidance. (YI, 27-11-1924, p. 391)
This may be considered to be quixotic, but it is my firm faith that
he who undertakes to do something in the name of God, and in full
faith in Him, even at the end of his days, does not work in vain; and
I am sure that the work I have undertaken is not mine, but is God’s.
(H, 1-3-1935, p. 24)
That is dharma which is enjoined by the holy books, followed
by the sages, interpreted by the learned and which appealed to the
heart. The first three conditions must be fulfilled before the fourth
comes into operation. Thus one has no right to follow the precepts of
an ignorant man or a rascal even though they commend themselves
to one. Rigorous observance of harmlessness, nonenmity and
renunciation are the first requisites for a person to entitle him to lay
down the law, i.e., dharma. (H, 17-11-1946, p. 397)
Futility of Force I have a deep conviction that no religion can be
sustained by brute force. On the contrary, those who take the sword
always perish by the sword. (H, 9-3-1934, p. 29)
Religions, like nations, are being weighed in the balance. That
religion and that nation will be blotted out of the face of earth, which
pins its faith to injustice, untruth or violence. (H, 12-9-1936, p. 247)
Morality With me moral includes spiritual. …In my career as
a reformer, I have regarded everything from the moral standpoint.
Whether I am engaged in tackling a political question or a social or
an economic one, the moral side of it always obtrudes itself and it
pervades my whole attitude. (H, 29-3-1935, p. 51)
There is no such thing as absolute morality for all times. But
there is a relative morality, which is absolute enough for imperfect
mortals that we are. Thus, it is absolutely immoral to drink spirituous
liquors except as medicine, in medicinal doses and under medical
advice. Similarly, it is absolutely wrong to see lustfully any woman
other than one’s wife. Both these positions have been proved by
cold reason. Counter-arguments have always been advanced. They
202 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
have been advanced against the very existence of God-the Sum of all
that is. Faith that transcends reason is our only Rock of Ages. …My
faith has saved me and is still saving me from pitfalls. It has never
betrayed me. It has never been known to betray anyone. (H, 23-12-
1939, p. 387)
Diversity of Religion In reality there are as many religions
as there are individuals. (HS, p. 49) Religions are different roads
converging upon the same point. What does it matter that we take
different roads, so long as we reach the same goal? (ibid, p. 50)
I do not share the belief that there can or will be on earth one
religion. I am striving, therefore, to find a common factor and to
induce mutual tolerance. (YI, 31-7-1924, p. 254)
Basic Unity The soul of religions is one, but it is encased in a
multitude of forms. The latter will persist to the end of time. Wise
men will ignore the outward crust and see the same soul living under
a variety of crusts. (YI, 25-9-1924, p. 318)
I believe that all the great religions of the world are true more
or less. I say ‘more or less’ because I believe that everything that
the human hand touches, by reason of the very fact that human
beings are imperfect, becomes imperfect. Perfection is the exclusive
attribute of God and it is indescribable, untranslatable. I do believe
that it is possible for every human being to become perfect even as
God is perfect. It is necessary for us all to aspire after perfection,
but when that blessed state is attained, it becomes indescribable,
indefinable. And I therefore admit, in all humility, that even the
Vedas, the Koran and the Bible are imperfect word of God and,
imperfect beings that we are, swayed to and fro by a multitude of
passions, it is impossible for us even to understand this word of God
in its fullness. (YI, 22-9-1927, p. 319)
I should love all the men-not only in India but in the worldbelonging
to the different faiths, to become better people by contact
with one another, and if that happens, the world will be a much
better place to live in than it is today. I plead for the broadest
toleration, and I am working to that end. I ask people to examine
every religion from the point of the religionists themselves. I do
not expect the India of my dream to develop one religion, i.e., to be
wholly Hindu, or wholly Christian, or wholly Mussalman, but I want
it to be wholly tolerant, with its religions working side by side with
one another. (YI, 22-12-1927, p. 425) I came to the conclusion long
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 203
ago, after prayerful search and study and discussion with as many
people as I could meet, that all religions were true and also that all
had some error in them, and that, whilst I hold by my own, I should
hold others as dear as Hinduism, from which it logically follows that
we should hold all as dear as our nearest kith and kin and that we
should make no distinction between them. (YI, 19-1-1928, p.22)
Belief in one God is the corner stone of all religions. But I do
not foresee a time when there would be only one religion on earth
in practice. In theory, since there is one God, there can be only one
religion. But in practice, no two persons I have known have had the
same identical conception of God. Therefore, there will, perhaps,
always be different religions answering to different temperaments
and climatic conditions. (H, 2-2-1934, p. 8)
I believe in the fundamental truth of all great religions of the
world. I believe that they are all God-given, and I believe that they
were necessary for the people to whom these religions were revealed.
And I believe that, if only we could all of us read the scriptures of the
different faiths from the standpoint of the followers of those faiths,
we should find that they were at the bottom all one and were all
helpful to one another. (H, 16-12-1934, p. 5-6)
Religions are not for separating men from one another. They are
meant to bind them. (H, 8-6-1940, p. 157)
The Scriptures For me the Vedas are divine and unwritten. ‘The
letter killeth.’ It is the spirit that giveth the light. And the spirit of
the Vedas is purity, truth, innocence, chastity, humility, simplicity,
forgiveness, godliness, and all that makes a man or woman noble
and brave. (YI, 19-1-1921, p. 22)
I do not believe in the exclusive divinity of the Vedas. I believe the
Bible, the Koran and Zend Avesta to be as much divinely inspired as
the Vedas. My belief in the Hindu scriptures does not require me to
accept every word and every verse as divinely inspired.....I decline
to be bound by an interpretation, however learned it may be, if it is
repugnant to reason or moral sense. (YI, 6- 10-1921, p. 317)
I am not a literalist. Therefore, I try to understand the spirit of the
various scriptures of the world. I apply the test of Truth and ahimsa
laid down by these very scriptures for interpretation. I reject what
is inconsistent with that test, and appropriate all that is consistent
with it. (YI, 27-8-1925, p. 293)
I have not been able to see any difference between the Sermon on
204 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
the Mount and the Bhagavad Gita. What the Sermon describes in a
graphic manner, the Bhagavad Gita reduces to a scientific formula.
It may not be a scientific book in the accepted sense of the term, but
it has argued out the law of love-the law of abandon, as I would call
it-in a scientific manner. The Sermon on the Mount gives the same
law in wonderful language. The New Testament gave me comfort
and boundless joy, as it came after the repulsion that parts of the
Old had given me. Today, supposing I was deprived of the Gita and
forgot all its contents but had a copy of the Sermon, I should derive
the same joy from it as I do from the Gita. (YI, 22-12-1927, p. 426)
There is one thing in me and that is that I love to see the bright
side of things and not the seamy side, and so I can derive comfort
and inspiration from any great book of any great religion. I may
not be able to reproduce a single verse from the Gita or the New
Testament; a Hindu child or Christian child may be able to repeat
the verses better; but those clever children cannot deprive me of the
assimilation that is in me today of the spirit of the two books. (ibid)
One’s experience, therefore, must be the final guide. The written
word undoubtedly helps, but even that has to be interpreted, and
when there are conflicting interpretations, the seeker is the final
arbiter. (H, 22-12-1933, p. 3)
I believe I have no superstition in me. Truth is not truth merely
because it is ancient. Nor is it necessarily to be regarded with
suspicion because it is ancient. There are some fundamentals of
life, which may not be lightly given up because they are difficult of
enforcement in one’s life. (H, 14-3-1936, p. 36)
Religious Instruction If India is not to declare spiritual
bankruptcy, religious instruction of its youth must be held to be at
least as necessary as secular instruction. It is true that knowledge of
religious books is no equivalent of that of religion. But if we cannot
have religion, we must be satisfied with providing our boys and girls
with what is next best. And whether there is such instruction given
in the schools or not, grown-up students must cultivate the art of
self-help about matters religious as about others. They may start
their own class just as they have their debating, and now, spinners’
clubs. (YI, 25-8-1927, p. 272)
I do not believe that the State can concern itself or cope with
religious education. I believe that religious education must be the
sole concern of religious associations. Do not mix up religion and
ethics. I believe that fundamental ethics is common to all religions.
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 205
Teaching of fundamental ethics is undoubtedly a function of the
State. By religion I have not in mind fundamental ethics but what
goes by the name of denominationalism. We have suffered enough
from State-aided religion and a State Church. A society or a group,
which depends partly or wholly on State aid for the existence of its
religion, does not deserve, or, better still, does not have any religion
worth the name. (H, 23-3-1947, p. 76)
A curriculum of religious instruction should include a study
of the tenets of faiths other than one’s own. For this purpose the
students should be trained to cultivate the habit of understanding
and appreciating the doctrines of various great religions of the world
in a spirit of reverence and broad-minded tolerance. (YI, 6-12-1928,
p406)
The Meaning of God
Law-giver and Law God may be called by any other name so long
as it connotes the living Law of Life-in other words, the Law and the
Law-giver rolled into one. (H, 14-4-1946,p80)
God Himself is both the Law and the Law-giver. The question
of anyone creating Him, therefore, does not arise, least of all by an
insignificant creature such as man. Man can build a dam, but he
cannot create a river. He can manufacture a chair, but it is beyond
him to make the wood. He can, however, picture God in his mind in
many ways. But how can man who is unable to create even a river or
wood create God? That God has created man is, therefore, the pure
truth. The contrary is an illusion. However, anyone may, if he likes,
say that God is neither the doer nor the cause. Either is predicable
of him. (ibid)
No Personal God I do not regard God as a person. Truth for me is
God, and God’s Law and God are not different things or facts, in the
sense that an earthly king and his law are different. Because God
is an Idea, Law Himself. Therefore, it is impossible to conceive God
as breaking the Law. He, therefore, does not rule our actions and
withdraw Himself. When we say He rules our actions, we are simply
using human language and we try to limit Him. Otherwise He and
His Law abide everywhere and govern everything.
Therefore, I do not think that He answers in every detail every
request of ours, but there is no doubt that He rules our action. …The
free will we enjoy is less than that of a passenger on a crowded deck.
…Although I know that my freedom is less than that of a passenger,
206 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
I appreciate that freedom, as I have imbibed through and through
the central teaching of the Gita that man is the maker of his own
destiny in the sense that he has freedom of choice as to the manner
in which he uses that freedom. But he is no controller of results. The
moment he thinks he is, he comes to grief. (H, 23-2- 1940, p55)
Let this however be quite clear. The Almighty is not a person
like us. He or It is the greatest living Force or Law in the world.
Accordingly, He does not act by caprice, nor does that Law admit of
any amendment or improvement. His will is fixed and changeless,
everything else changes every second. (H, 28-7-1946, p233)
His Personality I have not seen God face to face. If I had, I would
have no need to be speaking to you. My thought would be potent
enough to render speech and action on my part unnecessary. But I
have an undying faith in the existence of God. Millions all over the
world share this faith with me. The most learned cannot shake the
faith of the illiterate millions. (H, 3-8-1947, p262)
God is wholly good. There is no evil in Him. God made man in
His own image.
Unfortunately for us, man has fashioned Him in his own. This
arrogation has landed mankind in a sea of troubles. God is the
Supreme Alchemist. In His presence all iron and dross turn into
pure gold. Similarly does all evil turn into good.
Again, God lives, but not as we. His creatures live but to die. But
God is life.
Therefore, goodness and all it connotes is not an attribute.
Goodness is God. Goodness conceived as apart from Him is a lifeless
thing and exists only whilst it is a paying policy. So are all morals. If
they are to live in us, they must be considered and cultivated in their
relation to God. We try to become good because we want to reach
and realize God. All the dry ethics of the world turn to dust because
apart from God they are lifeless. Coming from God, they come with
life in them. They become part of us and ennoble us. Conversely, God
conceived without goodness is without life. We give Him life in our
vain imagining. (H, 24-8-1947, p285)
There is a big gulf between ‘seeing God face to face’ and ‘seeing
Him in the embodiment of Truth from a far distance’. In my opinion,
the two statements are not only not incompatible but each explains
the other. We see the Himalayas from a very great distance and
when we are on the top, we have seen the Himalayas face to face.
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 207
Millions can see them from hundreds of miles if they are within the
range of that seeing distance, but few having arrived at the top, after
years of travel, see them face to face. (H, 23-11-1947, p432)
I have never had [the slightest doubt] about the reality that God
Is and that His most graphic name is Truth. (H, 25-1-1948, p535)
Power of God Everything that has a beginning must end. The
sun, the moon and the earth must all perish one day, even though
it might be after an incalculable number of years. God alone is
immortal, imperishable. How can anyone find words to describe
Him? (H, 16-6-1946, p183)
God cannot be realized through the intellect. Intellect can lead
one to a certain extent and no further. It is a matter of faith and
experience derived from faith. One might rely on the experience of
one’s betters or else be satisfied with nothing less than personal
experience. Full faith does not feel the want of experience. (H, 4-8-
1946, p249)
God alone knows Absolute Truth. Therefore, I have often said,
Truth is God. It follows that man, a finite being, cannot know
Absolute Truth. (H, 7-4-1946, p70)
His Rule Today, in the West, people talk of Christ, but it is really
the Anti-Christ that rules their lives. Similarly, there are people who
talk of Islam, but really follow the way of Satan. It is a deplorable
state of affairs. …If people follow the way of God, there will not be
all this corruption and profiteering that we see in the world. The rich
are becoming richer and the poor poorer. Hunger, nakedness and
death stare one in the face. These are not the marks of the Kingdom
of God, but that of Satan, Ravana or Anti-Christ. We cannot expect
to bring the reign of God on earth by merely repeating His name with
the lips. Our conduct must conform to His ways instead of Satan’s.
(H, 23-6-1946, pp186-7)
Only when God reigns in men’s hearts will they be able to shed
their anger. (H,20-4-1947, p118)
All universal rules of conduct known as God’s commandments
are simple and easy to understand and carry out if the will is there.
They only appear to be difficult because of the inertia, which governs
mankind. Man is a progressive being. There is nothing at a standstill
in nature. Only God is motionless for, He was, is and will be the
same yesterday, today and tomorrow, and yet is ever moving. We
need not, however, worry ourselves over the attributes of God. We
208 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
have to realize that we are ever progressing. Hence, I hold that if
mankind is to live, it has to come growingly under the sway of truth
and non-violence. It is in view of these two fundamental rules of
conduct that I and you have to work and live. (H, 9-11-1947, p406)
A mind not set on God is given to wandering and lacks the quality
of a temple of worship. (ibid)
I call that great Power not by the name of Allah, not by the name
of Khuda or God, but by the name of Truth. For me Truth is God
and Truth overrides all our plans. The whole truth is only embodied
within the heart of that Great Power— Truth. I was taught from
my early days to regard Truth as un-approachable— something that
you cannot reach. A great Englishman taught me to believe that God
is unknowable. He is knowable, but knowable only to the extent that
our limited intellect allows. (H, 20-4-1947, p109)
God is all-powerful. He can change the hearts of man and bring
real peace among them. (H, 3-8-1947, p262)
Genesis of Evil Why is there evil in the world is a difficult question
to answer. I can only give what I may call a villager’s answer. If
there is good, there must also be evil, just as where there is light
there is also darkness, but it is true only so far as we human mortals
are concerned. Before God there is nothing good, nothing evil. We
poor villagers may talk of His dispensation in human terms, but our
language is not God’s. The Vedanta says the world is maya. Even
that explanation is a babbling of imperfect humanity. I, therefore,
say that I am not going to bother my head about it. Even if I was
allowed to peep into the innermost recesses of God’s chamber I should
not care to do it. For I should not know what to do there. It is enough
for our spiritual growth to know that God is always with the doer of
good. That again is a villager’s explanation. (H, 7-9-1935, p233)
I cannot account for the existence of evil by any rational method.
To want to do so is to be coequal with God. I am therefore humble
enough to recognize evil as such. And I call God long-suffering and
patient precisely because He permits evil in the world. I know that
He has no evil. He is the author of it and yet untouched by it.
I know too that I shall never know God if I do not wrestle with
and against evil even at the cost of life itself. I am fortified in the
belief by my own humble and limited experience. The purer I try to
become, the nearer I feel to be to God. How much more should I be,
when my faith is not a mere apology as it is today but has become as
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 209
immovable as the Himalayas and as white and bright as the snows
on their peaks? (YI, 11-10-1928, p341)
In a strictly scientific sense God is at the bottom of both good
and evil. He directs the assassin’s dagger no less than the surgeon’s
knife. But for all that good and evil are, for human purposes, from
each other distinct and incompatible, being symbolical of light and
darkness, God and Satan… (H, 20-2-1937, p9)
To say that God permits evil in this world may not be pleasing
to the ear. But if He is held responsible for the good, it follows that
He has to be responsible for the evil too. Did not God permit Ravana
to exhibit unparalleled strength? Perhaps, the root cause of the
perplexity arises from a lack of the real understanding of what God
is. God is not a person. He transcends description. He is the Lawmaker,
the Law and the Executor. No human being can well arrogate
these powers to himself. If he did, he would be looked upon as an
unadulterated dictator. They become only Him whom we worship as
God. This is the reality, a clear understanding of which will answer
the question [‘Does God permit evil?’] (H, 24-2-1946, p24)
There is a saying to the effect that the outer is only the reflection
of the inner.If you are good, the whole world will be good to you. On
the contrary, if you feel tempted to regard anybody as evil, the odds
are that the evil is within you.…We must neither think evil about
others nor suspect others of thinking evil about us. Proneness to
lend ear to evil reports is a sign of lack of faith. (H, 28- 4-1946, p111)
Miracles : I do [believe in miracles] and I do not. God does not
work through miracles. But the divine mind is revealed in a flash
and it appears like a miracle to man. We do not know God, we know
Him only through the working of His law. He and His law are one.
There is nothing outside His law. Even earthquakes and tempests
do not occur without His will-not a blade of grass grows but He will
it. Satan is here only on His sufferance, not independently of Him.
(H, 7-4-1946, pp75-76)
Man cannot be transformed from bad to good overnight. God does
not exercise magic. He too is within His own law. His law, however,
is different from the law of the State. There may be mistakes in the
latter, but God cannot err. If he were to go beyond the limits of His
law, the world will be lost. (H, 19-5-1946, p136)
History provides us with a whole series of miracles of masses of
people being converted to a particular view-point in the twinkling of
210 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
an eye. Take the Boer War. It has given to the English language the
word ‘Maffeking’. People went mad on the Maffeking Day. Yet, inside
of two years, the whole British nation underwent a transformation.
Henry Campbell Bannerman became the Premier and practically all
the gains of war were given up. The recent Labour victory at the
polls is another instance in point. To me it is a sufficient miracle
that, in spite of his oratory and brilliance, Churchill should cease to
be the idol of the British people who till yesterday hung on his lips
and listened to him in awe. All these instances are enough to sustain
the faith of a believer like me that, when all other powers are gone
one will remain, call it God, Nature or whatever you like. (H, 10-11-
1946, p389)
Incarnation All embodied life is in reality an incarnation of God,
but it is not usual to consider every living being an incarnation. Future
generations pay this homage to one who, in his own generation,
has been extraordinarily religious in his conduct. I can see nothing
wrong in this procedure; it takes nothing from God’s greatness, and
there is no violence done to Truth.....
This belief in incarnation is a testimony of man’s lofty spiritual
ambition. Man is not at peace with himself till he has become like
unto God. The endeavour to reach this state is the supreme, the only
ambition worth having. And this is self-realization. And this selfrealization
is the subject of the Gita, as it is of all scriptures. (YI,
6-8-1931, p206)
Belief, therefore, in prophets or incarnations who have lived
in remote ages is not an idle superstition, but a satisfaction of an
inmost spiritual want. (YI, 14)
God’s Laws Human language can but imperfectly describe God’s
ways. I am sensible of the fact that they are indescribable and
inscrutable. But if mortal man will dare to describe them, he has no
better medium than his own inarticulate speech. (A, p317)
We do not know all the laws of God nor their working. Knowledge
of the tallest scientist or the greatest spiritualist is like a particle of
dust. If God is not a personal being for me like my earthly father,
He is infinitely more. He rules me in the tiniest detail of my life. I
believe literally that not a leaf moves but by His will. Every breath I
take depends upon His sufferance. He and His law are one. The Law
is God. Anything attributed to Him is not a mere attribute. He is the
attribute. He is Truth, Love, Law and a million other things that
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 211
human ingenuity can name. (H, 16-2-1934, p4)
The laws of Nature are changeless, unchangeable, and there are
no miracles in the sense of infringement or interruption of Nature’s
laws. But we, limited beings, fancy all kinds of things and impute
our limitations to God. We may copy God, but not He us. We may not
divide Time for Him. Time for Him is eternity. For us there is past,
present and future. And what is human life of a hundred years but
less than a mere speck in the eternity of Time? (H, 17-4- 1947, p87)
Nature’s Visitations I share the belief with the whole worldcivilized
and uncivilized-that calamities such as the Bihar one
[earth-quake] come to mankind as chastisement for their sins.
When that conviction comes from the heart, people pray, repent and
purify themselves…. I have but a limited knowledge of His purpose.
Such calamities are not a mere caprice of the deity or Nature. They
obey fixed laws as surely as the planets move in obedience to laws
governing their movements. Only we do not know the laws governing
these events and, therefore, call them calamities or disturbances.
(H, 2-2-1934, p1)
This earthly existence of ours is more brittle than the glass bangles
that ladies wear. You can keep glass bangles for thousands of years
if you treasure them in a chest and let them remain untouched. But
this earthly existence is so fickle that it may be wiped out in the
twinkling of an eye. Therefore, while we have yet breathing time, let
us get rid of the distinctions of high and low, purify our hearts and
be ready to face our Maker when an earthquake or some natural
calamity or death in the ordinary course overtakes us. (ibid, p5)
There is a divine purpose behind every physical calamity. That
perfected science will one day be able to tell us beforehand when
earthquakes will occur, as it tells us today of eclipses, is quite possible.
It will be another triumph of the human mind. But such triumph
even indefinitely multiplied can bring about no purification of self
without which nothing is of any value. I ask those who appreciate the
necessity of inward purification to join the prayer that we may read
the purpose of God behind such visitations, that they may humble
us and prepare us to face our Maker whenever the call comes, and
that we may be ever ready to share the sufferings of our fellows
whosoever they may be. (H, 8-6-1935, p132)
God’s Names God has a thousand names, or rather, He is
Nameless. We may worship or pray to Him by whichever name that
212 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
pleases us. Some call Him Rama, some Krishna, others call Him
Rahim, and yet others call Him God. All worship the same spirit,
but as all foods do not agree with all, all names do not appeal to all.
Each chooses the name according to his associations, and He, being
the In-Dweller, All-Powerful and Omniscient knows our innermost
feelings and responds to us according to our deserts. Worship or
prayer, therefore, is not to be performed with the lips, but with the
heart. And that is why it can be performed equally by the dumb
and the stammerer, by the ignorant and the stupid. And the prayers
of those whose tongues are nectared but whose hearts are full of
poison are never heard. He, therefore, who would pray to God, must
cleanse his heart. Rama was not only on the lips of Hanuman, He
was enthroned in his heart. He gave Hanuman exhaustless strength.
In His strength he lifted the mountain and crossed the ocean. (YI,
24-9-1925, p331)
I talk of God exactly as I believe Him to be… I believe God to
be creative as well as non-creative. This too is the result of my
acceptance of the doctrine of the manyness of reality. From the
platform of the Jains I prove the noncreative aspect of God, and
from that of Ramanuja the creative aspect. As a matter of fact, we
are all thinking of the Unthinkable, describing the Indescribable,
seeking to know the Unknown, and that is why our speech falters,
is inadequate and even often contradictory. That is why the Vedas
describe Brahman as ‘not this’, ‘not this’. (H, 21-1-1926, p30)
In my opinion, Rama, Rahaman, Ahuramazda, God or Krishna
are all attempts on the part of man to name that invisible force which
is the greatest of all forces. It is inherent in man, imperfect though
he be, ceaselessly to strive after perfection. In the attempt he falls
into reverie. And, just as a child tries to stand, falls down again and
again and ultimately learns how to walk, even so man, with all his
intelligence, is a mere infant as compared to the infinite and ageless
God. This may appear to be an exaggeration but is not. Man can only
describe God in his own poor language. (H, 18-8-1946, p267)
Ramanama
My Saviour Though my reason and heart long ago realized the
highest attribute and name of God as Truth, I recognize Truth by
the name of Rama. In the darkest hour of my trial, that one name
has saved me and is still saving me. It may be the association of
childhood, it may be the fascination that Tulsidas has wrought
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 213
on me. But the potent fact is there, and as I write these lines, my
memory revives the scenes of my childhood, when I used daily to
visit the Ramji Mandir adjacent to my ancestral home. My Rama
then resided there. He saved me from many fears and sins. It was no
superstition for me. The custodian of the idol may have been a bad
man. I know nothing against him. Misdeeds might have gone on in
the temple. Again I know nothing of them. Therefore, they would not
affect me. What was and is true of me is true of millions of Hindus.
(H, 18-3-1933, p6)
When a child, my nurse taught me to repeat Ramanama whenever
I felt afraid or miserable, and it has been second nature with me
with growing knowledge and advancing years. I may even say that
the Word is in my heart, if not actually on my lips, all the twentyfour
hours. It has been by saviour and I am ever stayed on it. In the
spiritual literature of the world, the Ramayana of Tulsidas takes a
foremost place. It has charms that I miss in the Mahabharata and
even in Valmiki’s Ramayana. (H, 17-8-1934, p213)
Best Worship I myself have been a devotee of Tulasidas from
my childhood and have, therefore, always worshipped God as Rama.
But I know that if, beginning with Omkar, one goes through the
entire gamut of God’s names current in all climes, all countries and
languages, the result is the same. He and His law are one. To observe
His law is, therefore, the best form of worship. (H, 24-3-1946, p56)
One God I laugh within myself when someone objects that
Rama or the chanting of Ramanama is for the Hindus only, how can
Mussalmans therefore take part in it?
Is there one God for the Mussalmans and another for the
Hindus, Paris or Christians? No, there is only one omnipotent and
omnipresent God. He is named variously and we remember Him by
the name which is most familiar to us. My Rama, the Rama of our
prayers is not the historical Rama, the son Dasharatha, the King of
Ayodhya. He is the eternal, the unborn, the one without a second.
Him alone I worship. His aid alone I see, and so should you. He
belongs equally to all. I, therefore, see no reason why a Mussalman
or anybody should object to taking His name. But he is in no way
bound to recognize God as Ramanama. He may utter to himself
Allah or Khuda so as not to mar the harmony of the sound. (H, 28-
4-1946, p111)
To me...Rama, described as the Lord of Sita, son of Dasharatha, is
214 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
the allpowerful essence whose name, inscribed in the heart, removes
all sufferingmental, moral and physical. (H, 2-6-1946, p158)
Curative Power An apt question is as to why a man who recites
Ramanama regularly and leads a pure life should ever fall ill. Man is
by nature imperfect. A thoughtful man strives after perfection, but
never attains it. He stumbles on the way, however unwittingly. The
whole of God’s law is embodied in a pure life.
The first thing is to realize one’s limitations. It should be obvious
that, the moment one transgresses those limits, one falls ill. Thus a
balanced diet eaten in accordance with needs gives one freedom from
disease. How is one to know what is the proper diet for one? Many
such enigmas can be imagined. The purport of it all is that everyone
should be his own doctor and find out his limitations. The man who
does so will surely live up to 125. (H, 19-5-1946, p148)
Ramanama cannot perform the miracle of restoring to you a lost
limb. But it can perform the still greater miracle of helping you to
enjoy an ineffable peace in spite of the loss while you live and rob
death of its sting and the grave its victory at the journey’s end. Since
death must come soon or late to everyone, why should one worry
over the time? (H, 7-4-1946, p69)
The practice of nature cure does not require high academic
qualifications or much erudition. Simplicity is the essence of
universality. Nothing that is meant for the benefit of the millions
requires much erudition. The latter can be acquired only by the few
and, therefore, can benefit the rich only.
But India lives in her seven lakhs of villages-obscure, tiny, outof-
the-way villages, where the population in some cases hardly
exceeds a few hundred, very often not even a few score. I would like
to go and settle down in some such village. That is real India, my
India. You cannot take to these humble people the paraphernalia of
highly qualified doctors and hospital equipment. In simple, natural
remedies and Ramanama lies their only hope. (ibid)
Purity of Thought Mere lip recitation of Ramanama has nothing
to do with cure. Faith cure, if I know it correctly, is blind cure, such
as the friend describes and thereby ridicules the living name of the
living God. The latter is not a figment of one’s imagination. It has to
come from the heart. It is conscious belief in God and a knowledge
of His law that make perfect cure possible without any further aid.
That law is that a perfect mind is responsible for perfect health of
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 215
the body. A perfect mind comes from a perfect heart, not the heart
known by a doctor’s stethoscope but the heart which is the seat
of God. It is claimed that realization of God in the heart makes it
impossible for an impure or an idle thought to cross the mind.
Disease is impossible where there is purity of thought. Such a
state may be difficult to attain. But the first step in the ascent to
health is taken with its recognition. The next is taken when the
corresponding attempt is made. This radical alteration in one’s life is
naturally accompanied by the observance of all other nature’s laws
hitherto discovered by man. One cannot play with them and claim to
have a pure heart.
It can be said with justice that possession of a pure heart should
do equally well without Ramanama. Only, I know no other way of
attaining purity. And it is the way trodden by the sages of old all
over the world. They were men of God, not superstitious men or
charlatans. (H, 9-6-1946, p171)
Spiritual force is like any other force at the service of man. Apart
from the fact that it has been used for physical ailments for ages,
with more or less success, it would be intrinsically wrong not to use
it, if it can be successfully used for the cure of physical ailments. For,
man is both matter and spirit, each acting on and affecting the other.
If you get rid of malaria by taking quinine, without thinking of
the millions who do not get it, why should you refuse to use the
remedy which is within you, because millions will not use it through
their ignorance? May you not be clean and well because millions
of others will not be so, ignorantly or, maybe even cussedly? If you
will not be clean out of false notions of philanthropy, you will deny
yourself the duty of serving the very millions by remaining dirty and
ill. Surely refusal to be spiritually well or clean is worse than the
refusal to be physically clean and well. (H, 1-9-1946, p286).
To repeat Ramanama and to follow the way of Ravana in actual
practice is worse than useless. It is sheer hypocrisy. One may deceive
oneself or the world, but one cannot deceive the Almighty. (H, 23-6-
1946, p186)
Prayer The Food of Mysoul
I claim to be a man of faith and prayer, and even if I were cut to
pieces, I trust God would give me the strength not to deny Him and
to assert that He is. (YI, 8-12-1927, p413)
No act of mine is done without prayer. Man is a fallible being.
216 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
He can never be sure of his steps. What he may regard as answer to
prayer may be an echo of his pride. For infallible guidance man has
to have a perfectly innocent heart incapable of evil. I can lay no such
claim. Mine is a struggling, striving, erring, imperfect soul. (YI, 25-
9-1924, p313)
Even if I am killed, I will not give up repeating the names of Rama
and Rahim, which mean to me the same God. With these names on
my lips, I will die cheerfully. (H, 20-4-1947, p118)
Safeguard in Trial On all occasions of trial He has saved me. I
know that the phrase ‘God saved me’ has a deeper meaning for me
today, and still I feel that I have not yet grasped its entire meaning.
Only richer experience can help me to a fuller understanding. But
in all my trials-of a spiritual nature, as a lawyer, in conducting
institutions, and in politics-I can say that God saved me. When
every hope is gone, ‘when helpers fail and comforts flee’, I experience
that help arrives somehow, from I know not where. Prayer has been
the saving of my life. Without it I should have been a lunatic long
ago. My autobiography will tell you that I have had my fair share
of the bitterest public and private experiences. They threw me into
temporary despair, but if I was able to get rid of it, it was because of
prayer.
Now I may tell you that prayer has not been part of my life in the
sense that truth has been. It came out of sheer necessity, as I found
myself in a plight when I could not possibly be happy without it. And
the more my faith in God increased, the more irresistible became the
yearning for prayer. Life seemed to be dull and vacant without it.
I had attended the Christian service in South Africa, but it had
failed to grip me. I could not join them in prayer. They supplicated
God, but I could not do so, I failed egregiously. I started with disbelief
in God and prayer, and, until at a late stage in life, I did not feel
anything like a void in life. But at that stage I felt that, as food
was indispensable for the body, so was prayer indispensable for the
soul. In fact, food for the body is not so necessary as prayer for the
soul. For starvation is often necessary in order to keep the body in
health, but there is no such thing as prayer-starvation.... In spite of
despair staring me in the face on the political horizon, I have never
lost my peace. In fact, I have found people who envy my peace. That
peace, I tell you, comes from prayer; I am not a man of learning, but
I humbly claim to be a man of prayer. I am indifferent as to the form.
Every one is a law unto himself in that respect. But there are some
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 217
well-marked roads, and it is safe to walk along the beaten tracks,
trod by the ancient teachers. ...I have given my personal testimony.
Let everyone try and find that, as a result of daily prayer, he adds
something new to his life, something with which nothing can be
compared. (YI, 24-4-1931, p274)
God’s Response Never own defeat in a sacred cause and make
up your minds henceforth that you will be pure and that you will
find a response from God. But God never answers the prayers of
the arrogant, nor the prayers of those who bargain with Him.... If
you would ask Him to help you, you would go to Him in all your
nakedness, approach Him without reservations, also without fear
or doubts as to how He can help a fallen being like you. He who has
helped millions who have approached Him, is He going to desert
you? He makes no exceptions whatsoever and you will find that
every one of your prayers will be answered. I am telling this out of
my personal experience. I have gone through the purgatory. Seek
first the Kingdom of Heaven and everything will be added unto you.
(YI, 4-4- 1929, p111)
It is better in prayer to have a heart without words than words
without a heart. (YI, 23-1-1930, p25)
We go to the temple to worship not the stone or the metal image,
but God who resides in it. The image becomes what man makes of
it. It has no power independently of the sanctity with which it is
invested by the worshipper. Therefore everyone, including children,
should observe perfect silence at the time of prayer. (H, 28-4-1946,
p112)
Prayer is an impossibility without a living faith in the presence
of God within. (YI, 20-12-1928, p420)
Prayer is the first and the last lesson in learning the noble and
brave art of sacrificing self in the various walks of life, culminating
in the defense of one’s nation’s liberty and honour. Undoubtedly,
prayer requires a living faith in God. (H, 14-4-1946, p80)
Man often repeats the name of God parrot-wise and expects fruit
from so doing. The true seeker must have that living faith which
will not only dispel the untruth of parrot-wise repetition from within
him, but also from the hearts of others. (H, 5-5-1956, p113)
Need for Prayer As food is necessary for the body, prayer is
necessary for the soul. A man may be able to do without food for a
number of days-as Mac Swiney did for over 70 days— but, believing
218 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
in God, man cannot, should not live a moment without prayer. (YI,
15-12-1927, p424)
There are many who, whether from mental laziness or from
having fallen into a bad habit, believe that God is and will help us
unasked. Why, then, is it necessary to recite His name? It is true
I have never found Him lacking in response. I have found Him
nearest at hand when the horizon seemed darkest-in my ordeals in
jails when it was not at all smooth sailing for me. I cannot recall a
moment in my life when I had a sense of desertion by God. (H, 24-
12-1938, p395)
Character of Prayer Supplication, worship, prayer are no
superstition; they are acts more real than the acts of eating, drinking,
sitting or walking. It is no exaggeration to say that they alone are real,
all else is unreal. Such worship or prayer is no flight of eloquence; it
is no lip-homage. It springs from the heart. If, therefore, we achieve
that purity of the heart when it is ‘emptied of all but love’, if we
keep all the chords in proper tune, they ‘trembling pass in music
out of sight’. Prayer needs no speech. It is in itself independent of
any sensuous effort. I have not the slightest doubt that prayer is an
unfailing means of cleansing the heart of passions. But it must be
combined with the utmost humility. (A, pp51- 52) that if God is, He
is irrespective of our belief. But realization of God is infinitely more
than mere belief. That can come only by constant practice. This is
true of all science. How much more true of the science of all sciences?
(H, 28-4-1946, p109) Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of
the evening. (YI, 23-1-1930, p25)
I am giving you a bit of my experience and that of my companions
when I say that he who had experienced the magic of prayer may
do without food for days together, but not a single moment without
prayer. For without prayer there is no inward peace. (ibid)
I agree that, if a man could practice the presence of God all the
twenty-four hours, there would be no need for a separate time for
prayer. But most people find this impossible. The sordid everyday
world is too much with them. For them the practice of complete
withdrawal of the mind from all outward things, even though it might
be only for a few minutes everyday, will be found to be of infinite
use. Silent communion will help them to experience an undisturbed
peace in the midst of turmoil, to curb anger and cultivate patience.
(H, 28-4- 1946, p109)
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 219
It should be the general rule that prayers must not be delayed for
anybody on earth. God’s time never stops. From the very beginning
the wheel of His time has gone ceaselessly on. As a matter of fact,
there is no beginning for Him or His time....How can anyone afford
to miss the time of offering prayers to Him whose watch never stops?
(H, 5-5-1946, p113)
In the first shloka of Ishopanishad that is repeated everyday at
the beginning of the prayer, one is asked to dedicate everything to
God and then use it to the required extent. The principle condition
laid down is that one must not covet what belongs to another. These
two maxims contain the quintessence of the Hindu religion.
Essence of Prayer In another shloka which is recited during the
morning prayer it is said, ‘I do not ask for temporal power, not do I
ask to go to heaven, nor even to attain Nirwana, What I ask for is that
I may be able to relieve the pain of those who are in pain.’ The pain
might be physical, mental or spiritual. Spiritual pain due to slavery
to one’s passions is sometimes greater even than the physical.
But God does not come down in person to relieve suffering. He
works through human agency. Therefore, prayer to God to enable
one to relieve the suffering of others must mean a longing and a
readiness on one’s part to labour for it.
The prayer... is not exclusive. It is not restricted to one’s own
caste or community. It is all inclusive. It comprehends the whole of
humanity. Its realization would thus mean the establishment of the
Kingdom of Heaven on earth. (H, 28-4-1946, p111)
True meditation consists in closing the eyes and ears of the mind
to all else except the object of one’s devotion. Hence the closing of eyes
during prayers is a n aid to such concentration. Man’s conception of
God is naturally limited.
Each one has, therefore, to think of Him as best appeals to him,
provided that the conception is pure and uplifting. (H, 18-4-1946,
p265)
He can truly pray who has the conviction that God is within him.
He who has not, need not pray. God will not be offended, but I can
say from experience that he who does not pray is certainly a loser.
What matters, then, whether one man worships God as Person
and another as Force? Both do right according to their lights. None
knows and, perhaps, never will know what is the absolutely proper
way to pray. The ideal must always remain the ideal. One need
220 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
only remember that God is the Force among all the forces. All other
forces are material. But God is the vital force or spirit which is allpervading,
all-embracing and, therefore, beyond human ken. (ibid,
p267).
Efficacy of Silence It has often occurred to me that a seeker after
truth has to be silent. I know the wonderful efficacy of silence. I
visited a Trappist monastery in South Africa. A beautiful place it
was. Most of the inmates of that place were under a vow of silence.
I inquired of the Father the motive of it and he said the motive is
apparent: ‘We are frail human beings. We do not know very often
what we say. If we want to listen to the still small voice that is always
speaking within us, it will not be heard if we continually speak.’ I
understood that precious lesson. I know the secret of silence. (YI,
6-8-1925, pp274-5)
Experience has taught me that silence is a part of the spiritual
discipline of a votary of truth. Proneness to exaggerate, to suppress
or modify the truth, wittingly or unwittingly, is a natural weakness
of man, and silence is necessary in order to surmount it. A man of
few words will rarely be thoughtless in his speech; he will measure
every word. (A, p45)
Silence of the sewn-up lips is no silence. One may achieve the
same result by chopping off one’s tongue, but that too would not be
silence. He is silent who, having the capacity to speak, utters no idle
word. (H, 24-6-1933, p5)
It [silence] has now become both a physical and spiritual necessity
for me.Originally it was taken to relieve the sense of pressure. Then
I wanted time for writing. After, however, I had practiced it for some
time, I saw the spiritual value of it. It suddenly flashed across my
mind that that was the time when I could best hold communion with
God. And now I feel as though I was naturally built for silence. (H,
10-12-1938, p323-4)
Prayer is for remembering God, and for purifying the heart, and
can be offered even when observing silence. (H, 20-4-1947, p118)
As I believe that silent prayer is often a mightier [force] than any
overt act, in my helplessness I continuously pray in the faith that
the prayer of a pure heart never goes unanswered. (YI, 22-9-1927,
p321)
Power of Prayer I can give my own testimony and say that a
heartfelt prayer is undoubtedly the most potent instrument that
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 221
man possesses for overcoming cowardice and all other bad old habits.
(YI, 20-12-1928, p420)
Not until we have reduced ourselves to nothingness can we
conquer the evil in us. God demands nothing less than complete selfsurrender
as the price for the only real freedom that is worth having.
And when a man thus loses himself, he immediately finds himself in
the service of all that lives. It becomes his delight and his recreation.
He is a new man, never weary of spending himself in the service of
God’s creation. (ibid)
There is an eternal struggle raging in man’s breast between the
powers of darkness and of light, and he who has not the sheet-anchor
of prayer to rely upon will be a victim to the powers of darkness. The
man of prayer will be at peace with himself and with the whole world;
the man who goes about the affairs of the world without a prayerful
heart will be miserable and will make the world also miserable....
Prayer is the only means of bringing about orderliness and peace
and repose in our daily acts....Take care of the vital thing and other
things will take care of themselves. Rectify one angle of a square,
and the other angles will be automatically right. (YI, 23-1-1930, p26)
Prayer is not an old woman’s idle amusement. Properly
understood and applied, it is the most potent instrument of action.
(H, 14-4-1946, p80)
When the mind is completely filled with His spirit, one cannot
harbour ill-will or hatred towards anyone and, reciprocally, the
enemy will shed his enmity and become a friend. It is not my claim
that I have succeeded in converting enemies into friends, but in
numerous cases it has been my experience that, when the mind is
filled with His peace, all hatred ceases. An unbroken succession of
world teachers since the beginning of time have borne testimony to
the same. I claim to merit for it. I know it is entirely due to God’s
grace. (H, 28-4-1946, p109)
One with a wicked heart can never be conscious of the allpurifying
presence of God. (H, 29-6-1946, p209)
God answers prayer in His own way, not ours. His ways are
different from the ways of mortals. Hence they are inscrutable.
Prayer presupposes faith. No prayer goes in vain. Prayer is like any
other action. It bears fruit whether we see it or not, and the fruit of
heart prayer is far more potent than action socalled. (ibid, p215)
222 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
My Hinduism is Not Exclusive
All-embracing FOR ME Hinduism is all-sufficing. Every variety
of belief finds protection under its ample folk. (SW, p329)
I can no more describe my feelings for Hinduism than for my
own wife. She moves me as no other woman in the world can. Not
that she has no faults; I dare say she has many more than I see
myself. But the feeling of an indescribable bond is there. Even so I
feel for and about Hinduism with all its faults and limitations. (YI,
6-10-1921, p318) ...Hinduism is not an exclusive religion. In it there
is room for the worship of all the prophets in the world. It is not a
missionary religion in the ordinary sense of the term. It has no doubt
absorbed many tribes in its fold, but this absorption has been of an
evolutionary, imperceptible character. Hinduism tells every one to
worship God according to his own faith or Dharma and so it lives at
peace with all the religions. (ibid)
There is nothing in the world that would keep me from professing
Christianity or any other faith, the moment I felt the truth of
and the need for it. Where there is fear, there is no religion...If I
could call myself, say, a Christian, or a Mussalman, with my own
interpretation of the Bible or the Koran, I should not hesitate to
call myself either. For then Hindu, Christian and Mussalman would
be synonymous terms. I do believe that in the other world there
are neither Hindus, nor Christians nor Mussalmans. They all are
judged not according to their labels, or professions, but according to
their actions, irrespective of their professions. During our earthly
existence there will always be these labels. I, therefore, prefer to
retain the label of my forefathers so long as it does not cramp my
growth and does not debar me from assimilating all that is good
anywhere else. (YI, 2-7-1926, p308)
I know that friends get confused when I say I am a Sanatanist
Hindu and they fail to find in me things they associate with a man
usually labeled as such. But that is because, in spite of my being a
staunch Hindu, I find room in my faith for Christian and Islamic and
Zoroastrian teaching, and, therefore, my Hinduism seems to some
to be a conglomeration and some have even dubbed me an eclectic.
Well, to call a man eclectic is to say that he has no faith, but mine is
a broad faith which does not oppose Christians-not even a Plymouth
Brother-not even the most fanatical Mussalman. It is a faith based
on the broadest possible toleration. I refuse to abuse a man for his
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 223
fanatical deeds because I try to see them from his point of view. It
is that broad faith that sustains me. It is a somewhat embarrassing
position, I know-but to others, not to me! (YI, 22-12- 1927, p426)
The chief value of Hinduism lies in holding the actual belief that
all life (not only human beings, but all sentient beings) is one, i.e.,
all life coming from the One universal source, call it Allah, God or
Parameshwara. (H, 26-12-1936, p365)
My Hinduism is not sectarian. It includes all that I know to be
best in Islam, Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastria-nism....Truth
is my religion and ahimsa is the only way of its realization. I have
rejected once and for all the doctrine of the sword. (H, 30-4-1938,
p99)
Hinduism and Ahimsa Hinduism with its message of ahimsa is
to me the most glorious religion in the world-as my wife to me is the
most beautiful woman in the world—but others may feel the same
about their own religion. (YI, 19-1-1928, p22)
The most distinctive and the largest contribution of Hinduism to
India’s culture is the doctrine of ahimsa. It has given a definite bias
to the history of the country for the last three thousand years and
over and it has not ceased to be a living force in the lives of India’s
millions even today. It is a growing doctrine, its message is still
being delivered. Its teaching has so far permeated our people that
an armed revolution has almost become an impossibility in India not
because, as some would have it, we as a race are physically weak,
for it does not require much physical strength so much as a devilish
will to press a trigger to shoot a person, but because the tradition of
ahimsa has struck deep root among the people. (H, 24-3-1929, p95)
Mother Gita I do not believe that the Gita teaches violence for
doing good. It is preeminently a description of the duel that goes on
in our own hearts. The divine author has used a historical incident
for inculcating the lesson of doing one’s duty even at the peril of
one’s life. It inculcates performance of duty irrespective of the
consequences, for we mortals, limited by our physical frames, are
incapable of controlling actions, save our own. The Gita distinguished
between the powers of light and darkness and demonstrates their
incompatibility. (YI, 25-8-1920, p2)
Though I admire much in Christianity, I am unable to identify
myself with orthodox Christianity...Hinduism as I know it entirely
satisfies my soul, fills my whole being, and I find a solace in the
224 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads that I miss even in the Sermon on
the Mount. Not that I do not prize the ideal presented therein; not
that some of the precious teaching in the Sermon on the Mount have
not left a deep impression upon me, but I must confess.... that, when
doubt haunts me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and
when I see not one ray of light on the horizon, I turn to the Bhagavad
Gita, and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to
smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. My life has been full of
external tragedies, and if they have not left any visible and indelible
effect on me, I owe it to the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita. (YI, 6-8-
1925, p274)
As for myself, I run to my Mother Gita whenever I find myself
in difficulties, and up to now she has never failed to comfort me. It
is possible that those who are getting comfort from the Gita may
get greater help, and see something altogether new, if they come to
know the way in which I understand it from day to day. (YI, 13-11-
1930, p1)
Today the Gita is not only my bible or my Koran; it is more than
that—it is my mother. I lost my earthly mother who gave me birth
long ago; but this eternal mother has completely filled her place by
my side ever since. She has never changed, she has never failed me.
When I am in difficulty or distress, I seek refuge in her bosom. (H,
24-8-1934, p222)
The Way of the Buddha It is my deliberate opinion that the
essential part of the teachings of the Buddha now forms an integral
part of Hinduism. It is impossible for Hindu India today to retrace
her steps and go behind the great reformation that Gautama effected
in Hinduism. By his immense sacrifice, by his great renunciation,
and by the immaculate purity of his life he left an indelible impress
upon Hinduism, and Hinduism owes an eternal debt of gratitude
to that great teacher... What Hinduism did not assimilate of what
passes as Buddhism today was not an essential part of the Buddha’s
life and his teachings.
It is my fixed opinion that Buddhism or, rather, the teaching
of the Buddha found its full fruition in India and it could not be
otherwise, for Gautama was himself a Hindu of Hindus. He was
saturated with the best that was in Hinduism, and he gave life to
some of the teachings that were buried in the Vedas and which were
overgrown with weeds. His great Hindu spirit cut its way through
the forest of words, meaningless words, which had overlaid the
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 225
golden truth that was in the Vedas. He made some of the words in
the Vedas yield a meaning to which the men of his generation were
utter strangers, and he found in India the most congenial soil. And
wherever the Buddha went, he was followed by and surrounded not
by non-Hindus but Hindus, those who were themselves saturated
with vedic law. But the Buddha’s teaching, like his heart, was allexpanding
and all-embracing and so it has survived his own body
and swept across the face of the earth. And at the risk of being called
a follower of the Buddha, I claim this achievement as a triumph of
Hinduism. The Buddha never rejected Hinduism, but he broadened
its base. He gave it a new life and a new interpretation. But...I want
to submit to you that the teaching of the Buddha was not assimilated
in its fullness whether it was in Ceylon, or in Burma, or in China, or
in Tibet... (YI, 24-11-1927, pp392-3)
Moral Government of World I have heard it contended times
without number and I have read in books also claiming to express
the spirit of Buddhism that the Buddha did not believe in God. In my
humble opinion such a belief contradicts the very central fact of the
Buddha’s teaching...The confusion has arisen over his rejection, and
just rejection, of all the base things that passed in his generation
under the name of God. He undoubtedly rejected the notion that a
being called God was actuated by malice, could repent of his actions
and, like the Kings of the earth, could possibly be open to temptations
and bribes and could possibly have favourites.
His whole soul rose in mighty indignation against the belief that
a being called God required for his satisfaction the living blood of
animals in order that he might be pleased-animals who were his
own creation. He, therefore, reinstated God in the right place and
dethroned the usurper who for the time being seemed to occupy
that White Throne. He emphasized and re-declared the eternal and
unalterable existence of the moral government of this universe. He
unhesitatingly said that the law was God Himself. God’s laws are
eternal and unalterable and not separable from God Himself. It is an
indispensable condition of His very perfection. And hence the great
confusion that the Buddha disbelieved in God and simply believed
in the moral law, and because of this confusion about God Himself,
arose the confusion about the proper understanding of the great
word Nirvana. Nirvana is undoubtedly not utter extinction. So far
as I have been able to understand the central fact of the Buddha’s
life, Nirvana is utter extinction of all that is base in us, all that is
226 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
vicious in us, all that is corrupt and corruptible in us. Nirvana is
not like the black, dead peace of the grave, but the living peace, the
living happiness of a soul which is conscious of itself, and conscious
of having found its own abode in the heart of the Eternal.... Great
as the Buddha’s contribution to humanity was in restoring God
to His eternal place, in my humble opinion, greater still was his
contribution to humanity in his exacting regard of all life, be it ever
so low. (ibid, p393)
Christianity in the West It is my firm opinion that Europe today
represents not the spirit of God or Christianity, but the spirit of
Satan. And Satan’s successes are the greatest when he appears
with the name of God on his lips. Europe is today only nominally
Christian. In reality it is worshipping Mammon. ‘It is easier for a
camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to
enter the Kingdom.’ Thus really spoke Jesus Christ. His so-called
followers measure their moral progress by their material possessions
(YI, 8-9-1920, pp2-3)
It is a very curious commentary on the West that although it
professes Christianity, there is no Christianity or Christ in the
West, or there should have been no war. That is how I understand
the message of Jesus. (H, 17-11-1946, p405)
Christianity became disfigured when it went to the West. I am
sorry to have to say that. (H, 20-4-1947, p116)
I ask my Christian brethren...not to take their Christianity as
it is interpreted in the West. There, we know, they fight with one
another as never before. After all, Jesus was an Asiatic depicted as
wearing the Arabian flowing robe. He was the essence of meekness.
I hope that the Christians of India will express in their lives Jesus
the crucified, of the Bible, and not as interpreted in the West with
her blood-stained fingers. I have no desire to criticize the West. I
know and value the many virtues of the West. But I am bound to
point out that Jesus of Asia is misrepresented in the West except in
individuals. (H, 7-9-1947, p315) The indirect influence of Christianity
has been to quicken Hinduism into life.
But the effect of Christianity upon India in general must be
judged by the life lived in our midst by the average Christian and its
effect upon us. I am sorry to have to record my opinion that it has
been disastrous. (YI, 31-7-1924, p254)
Personality of Christ I may say that I have never been interested
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 227
in a historical Jesus. I should not care if it was proved by someone that
the man called Jesus never lived, and that [what] was narrated in the
Gospels was a figment of the writer’s imagination. For the Sermon on
the Mount would still be true for me. (YI, 31-12-1931, p429)
I cannot ascribe exclusive divinity to Jesus. He is as divine as
Krishna or Rama or Mohamed or Zoroaster. Similarly, I do not
regard every word of the Bible as the inspired word of God, even as I
do not regard every word of the Vedas or the Koran as inspired. The
sum total of each of these books is certainly inspired, but I miss that
inspiration in many of the things taken individually.
The Bible is as much a book of religion with me as the Gita and
the Koran. (H, 6-3-1937, p25)
Though, I cannot claim to be a Christian in the sectarian sense,
the example of Jesus’ suffering is a factor in the composition of my
undying faith in nonviolence which rules all my actions, worldly and
temporal. (H, 7-1-1939, p417)
What Christ Means to Me What...does Jesus mean to me? To me,
He was one of the greatest teachers humanity has ever had. To His
believers, He was God’s only begotten Son. Could the fact that I do or
do not accept this belief make Jesus have any more or less influence
in my life? Is all the grandeur of His teaching and of His doctrine to
be forbidden to me? I cannot believe so. (MR, Oct. 1941, pp406-7)
To me it [the word ‘begotten’] implies a spiritual birth. My
interpretation, in other words, is that in Jesus’ own life is the key of
His nearness to God; that He expressed, as no other could, the spirit
and will of God. It is in this sense that I see Him and recognize Him
as the Son of God. (ibid)
I believe that it is impossible to estimate the merits of the various
religions of the world, and, moreover, I believe that it is unnecessary
and harmful even to attempt it. But each one of them, in my
judgment, embodies a common motivating force: the desire to uplift
man’s life and give it purpose. And because the life of Jesus has the
significance and the transcendency to which I have alluded, I believe
that He belongs not solely to Christianity, but to the entire world,
to all races and people-it matters little under what flag, name or
doctrine they may work, profess a faith, or worship a God inherited
from their ancestors. (ibid)
There is much ignorance and superstition in India. But deep
down in us is that faith in God-the instinct for religion. (H, 17-11-
228 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
1946, p405)
If Mohamed came to India today, he would disown many of his
so-called followers and own me as a true Muslim, as Jesus would
own me as a true Christian. (ibid)
“How can we bring man back to God or the teaching of Jesus, or
that of Mohamed?” I might give the answer that Jesus gave to one of
his followers: “Do the will of my Father who is in Heaven, not merely
say Lord, Lord.” That holds true of you, me and everybody. If we
have faith in the living God, all will be well with us. I hope not to lose
that faith even to my dying day. In spite of my numerous failings
and shortcomings of which I am but too well aware, my faith in God
is burning brighter every day. (ibid)
If it did not, I would take the same prescription that I gave a
women threatened with dishonour and with no prospect of help or
escape, viz., commit suicide. (ibid)
Islam a Religion of Peace I do regard Islam to be a religion of
peace in the same sense as Christianity, Buddhism and Hinduism
are. No doubt there are differences in degree, but the object of these
religions is peace. (YI, 20-1-1927, p21)
Islam’s distinctive contribution to India’s national culture
is its unadulterated belief in the oneness of God and a practical
application of the truth of the brotherhood of man for those who are
nominally within its fold. I call these two distinctive contributions.
For in Hinduism the spirit of brotherhood has become too much
philosophized. Similarly, though philosophical Hinduism has no
other god but God, it cannot be denied that practical Hinduism is
not so emphatically uncompromising as Islam. (YI, 21-3-1929, p95)
The Koran and Non-violence [Barisaheb] assured me that there
was warrant enough for Satyagraha in the Holy Koran. He agreed
with the interpretation of the Koran to the effect that, whilst violence
under certain well-defined circumstances is permissible, selfrestraint
is dearer to God than violence, and that is the law of love. That is
Satyagraha. Violence is concession to human weakness, Satyagraha
is an obligation. Even from the practical standpoint it is easy enough
to see that violence can do no good and only do infinite harm. (YI,
14-5-1919, quoted in Communal Unity, p985) Some Muslim friends
tell me that Muslims will never subscribe to unadulterated nonviolence.
With them, they say, violence is as lawful and necessary as
nonviolence. The use of either depends upon circumstances. It does
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 229
not need Koranic authority to justify the lawfulness of both. That is
the well-known path the world has traversed through the ages. There
is no such thing as unadulterated violence in the world. But I have
heard it from many Muslim friends that the Koran teaches the use
of non-violence. It regards forbearance as superior to vengeance. The
very word Islam means peace, which is nonviolence. Badshahkhan,
a staunch Muslim who never misses his namaz and Ramzan, has
accepted out and out non-violence as his creed. It would be no answer
to say that he does not live up to his creed, even as I know to my
shame that I do not one of kind, it is of degree. But, argument about
non-violence in the Holy Koran is an interpolation, not necessary for
my thesis. (H, 7-10-1939, p296)
Use of Force : There is nothing in the Koran to warrant the use
of force for conversion. The Holy Book says in the clearest language
possible, ‘There is no compulsion in religion’. The Prophet’s whole
life is a repudiation of compulsion in religion. No Mussalman, to my
knowledge, has ever approved of compulsion. Islam would cease to
be a world religion of it were to rely upon force for its propagation.
(YI, 29-9-1921, p307)
I have given my opinion that the followers of Islam are too free
with the sword.
But that is not due to the teaching of the Koran. This is due, in my
opinion, to the environment in which Islam was born. Christianity
has a bloody record against it not because Jesus was found wanting,
but because the environment in which it spread was not responsive
to his lofty teaching. (YI, 20-1-1927, p21)
The Koran : I have more than once read the Koran. My religion
enables me, obliges me, to imbibe all that it good in all the great
religions of the earth. (H, 28-10-1939, p317)
I certainly regard Islam as one of the inspired religions and,
therefore, the Holy Koran as an inspired book and Muhammad as
one of the prophets. (H, 13-7- 1940, p207)
I have come to the conclusion that the teaching of the Koran is
essentially in favour of non-violence. Non-violence is better than
violence, it is said in the Koran. Non-violence is enjoined as a duty;
violence is permitted as a necessity. (ibid, p193)
Religionand Politics
Life an Integral Whole I claim that human mind or human society
is not divided into watertight compartments called social, political and
230 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
religious. All act and react upon one another. (YI, 2-3-1922, p. 131)
Human life being an undivided whole, no line can ever be
drawn between its different compartments, not between ethics and
politics. A trader who earns his wealth by deception only succeeds
in deceiving himself when he thinks that his sins can be washed
away by spending some amount of his ill-gotten gains on the socalled
religious purposes. One’s everyday life is never capable of
being separated from one’s spiritual being. Both act and react upon
one another. (H, 30-3-1947, p. 85)
The politician in me has never dominated a single decision of
mine, and if I seem to take part in politics, it is only because politics
encircle us today like the coil of a snake from which one cannot get
out, no matter how much one tries. I wish, therefore, to wrestle with
the snake as I have been doing with more or less success consciously
since 1894, unconsciously, as I have now discovered, ever since
reaching years of discretion. Quite selfishly, as I wish to live in peace
in the midst of a bellowing storm howling round me, I have been
experimenting with myself and my friends by introducing religion
into politics. (YI, 12-5-1920, p. 2)
To see the universal and all-pervading Spirit of Truth face to
face, one must be able to love the meanest of creation as oneself. And
a man who aspires after that cannot afford to keep out of any field of
life. That is why my devotion to Truth has drawn me into the field
of politics; and I can say without the slightest hesitation, and yet in
all humility, that those who say that religion has nothing to do with
politics do not know what religion means. (A, pp. 370-1)
I could not be leading a religious life unless I identified myself
with the whole of mankind, and that I could not do unless I took part
in politics. The whole gamut of man’s activities today constitutes an
indivisible whole. You cannot divide social, economic, political and
purely religious work into watertight compartments. I do not know
any religion apart from human activity. It provides a moral basis to
all other activities which they would otherwise lack, reducing life to
a maze of ‘sound and fury signifying nothing’. (H, 24-12-1938, p.393)
I felt compelled to come into the political field because I found I
could not do even social work without touching politics. I feel that
political work must be looked upon in terms of social and moral
progress. In democracy no fact f life is untouched by politics. (H,
6-10-1946, p. 341)
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 231
For me, politics bereft of religion are absolute dirt, ever to be
shunned. Politics concern nations and that which concerns the
welfare of nations must be one of the concerns of a man who is
religiously inclined, in other words, a seeker after God and Truth.
For me, God and Truth are convertible terms, and if anyone told me
that God was a god of untruth or a god of torture, I would decline
to worship Him. Therefore, in politics also we have to establish the
kingdom of Heaven. (YI, 18-6-1925, p. 214)
I cannot isolate politics from the deepest things of my life, for the
simple reason that my politics are not corrupt, they are inextricably
bound up with non-violence and truth. (YI, 1-10-1931, p. 281)
I could not live for a single second without religion. Many of my
political friends despair of me because they say that even my politics
are derived from religion.
And they are right. My politics and all other activities of mine are
derived from my religion. I go further and say that every activity of a
man of religion must be bound to God, that is to say, God rules your
every breath. (H, 2-3-1934, p. 23)
Indeed, religion should pervade every one of our actions. Here
religion does not mean sectarianism. It means a belief in ordered
moral government of the universe. It is not less real because it is
unseen. This religion transcends Hinduism, Islam, Christianity,
etc. It does not supersede them. It harmonizes them and gives them
reality. (H, 10-2-1940, p. 445)
The life of the millions is my politics, from which I dare not free
myself without denying my life-work and God. That my politics may
take a different turn [after the 15th August 1947, when India will be
free] is quite possible. But that will be determined by circumstances.
(H, 17-8-1947, p. 281)
There is undoubtedly a sense in which the statement is true
when I say that I hold my religion dearer than my country and that,
therefore, I am a Hindu first and nationalist after. I do not become on
that score less a nationalist than the best of them. I simply thereby
imply that the interests of my country are identical with those of my
religion. Similarly, when I say that I prize my own salvation above
everything else, above the salvation of India, it does not mean that
my personal salvation requires a sacrifice of necessarily that the two
go together. (YI, 23-2-1922, p. 123)
Religion is no test of nationality, but a personal matter between
232 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
man and his God. In the sense of nationality they are Indians first
and Indians last, no matter what religion they profess. (H, 29-6-
1947, p. 215)
Templesand Idolatry
Character of Idolatry : I do not disbelieve in idol worship. An idol
does not excite any feeling of veneration in me. But I think that idol
worship is part of human nature. We hanker after symbolism. Why
should one be more composed in a church than elsewhere? Images
are an aid to worship. No Hindu considers an image to be God. I do
not consider idol worship a sin. (YI, 6-10-1921, p318)
I am both an idolater and an iconoclast in what I conceive to be
the true sense of the terms. I value the spirit behind idol worship.
It plays a most important part in the uplift of the human race... I
am an iconoclast in the sense that I break down the subtle form of
idolatry in the shape of fanaticism that refuses to see any virtue in
any other form of worshipping the Deity save one’s own. This form
of idolatry is more deadly for being more fine and evasive than the
tangible and gross form of worship that identifies the Deity with a
little bit of a stone or a golden image. (YI, 28-8-1924, p284)
I am both a supporter and opponent of image worship. When
image worship degenerates into idolatry and becomes encrusted
with false beliefs and doctrines, it becomes a necessity to combat it
as a gross social evil. On the other hand, image worship in the sense
of investing one’s ideal with a concrete shape is inherent in man’s
nature, and even valuable as an aid to devotion. Thus we worship
an image when we offer homage to a book which we regard as holy
or sacred. We worship an image when we visit a temple or a mosque
with a feeling of sanctity or reverence. Nor do I see any harm in
all this. On the contrary, endowed as man is with a finite, limited
understanding, he can hardly do otherwise. Even so, far from seeing
anything inherently evil or harmful in tree worship, I find in it a
thing instinct with a deep pathos and poetic beauty. It symbolizes
true reverence for the entire vegetable kingdom which, with its
endless panorama of beautiful shapes and forms, declares to us, as
it were with a million tongues, the greatness and glory of God.... (YI,
26-9-1929, p320)
Far different, however, is the case of vows and prayers which
votaries offer before trees. The offering of vows and prayers for
selfish ends, whether offered in churches, mosques, temples or before
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 233
trees and shrines, is a thing not to be encouraged. Making of selfish
requests or offering of vows is not related to image worship as effect
and cause. A personal selfish prayer is bad whether made before an
image or an unseen God.
Let no one, however, from this understand me to mean that I
advocate tree worship in general. I do not defend tree worship because
I consider it to be a necessary aid to devotion, but only because I
recognize that God manifests Himself in innumerable forms, in this
universe, and every such manifestation commands my spontaneous
reverence. (ibid)
As for idol worship, you cannot do without it in some form or
other. Why does a Mussalman give his life for defending a mosque
which he calls a house of God?
And why does a Christian go to a church, and when he is required
to take an oath, he swears by the Bible? Not that I see any objection
to it. And what is it if not idolatry to give untold riches for building
mosques and tombs? And what do the Roman Catholics do when
they kneel before Virgin Mary and before saints, quite imaginary
figures in stone or painted on canvas or glass? Even so, it is not the
stone we worship, but it is God we worship in images of stone or
metal, however rude they may be. (H, 13-3-1937, p39)
Place of Worship I do not regard the existence of temples as a sin
or superstition. Some form of common worship and a common place
of worship appear to be a human necessity. Whether the temples
should contain images or not is a matter of temperament and taste.
I do not regard a Hindu or a Roman Catholic place of worship
containing images as necessarily bad or superstitious and a mosque
or a Protestant place of worship being good or free of superstition
merely because of their exclusion of images. A symbol such as a Cross
or a book may easily become idolatrous, and therefore, superstitious.
And the worship of the image of Child Krishna or Virgin Mary may
become ennobling and free of all superstition. It depends upon the
attitude of the heart of the worshipper. (YI, 5-11-1925, p378)
Places of worship to me are not merely brick and mortar. They
are but a shadow of the reality. Against every church and every
mosque and every temple destroyed, hundreds have risen in their
places. (YI, 4-11-1926, p386)
I know of no religion or sect that has done or is doing without
its house of God, variously described as a temple, mosque, church,
234 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
synagogue or agissari. Nor is it certain that any of the great reformers
including Jesus destroyed or discarded temples altogether. All of them
sought to banish corruption from temples as well as from society...I
have ceased to visit temples for years, but I do not regard myself on
that account as a better person than before. My mother never missed
going to the temple when she was in fit state to go there.
Probably her faith was far greater than mine, though I do not
visit temples. (H, 11-3-1933, p5) Temples or mosques or churches...
I make no distinction between these different abodes of God. They
are what faith has made them. They are an answer to man’s craving
somehow to reach the Unseen. (H, 18-3-1933, p6)
Acquisition of consciousness [of the living presence of God within
one] does not require or mean temple-going. (H, 29-6-1947, p209)
Our bodies are the real temples rather than buildings of stone.
The best place for congregational worship is in the open with the sky
above as the canopy and mother earth below for the floor. (H, 4-1-
1948, p498)
The Curse of Untouchability
I do not want to be reborn. But if I have to be reborn, I should be born
an untouchable, so that I may share their sorrows, sufferings, and the
affronts leveled at them, in order that I may endeavour to free myself
and them from that miserable condition. I, therefore, prayed that, if
I should be born again, I should do so not as a Brahmin, Kshatriya,
Vaishya or Shudra, but as an Atishudra. (YI, 4-5-1921, p144).
I was wedded to the work for the extinction of ‘untouchability’
long before I was wedded to my wife. There were two occasions in our
joint life when there was choice between working for the untouchables
and remaining with my wife and I would have preferred the first. But
thanks to my good wife, the crisis was averted. In my Ashram, which
is my family, I have several untouchables and a sweet but naughty
girl living as my own daughter. (YI, 5-11-1931, p341) Love of the
people brought the problem of untouchability early into my life. My
mother said. ‘You must not touch this boy, he is an untouchable.’
‘Why not?’ I questioned back, and from that day my revolt began.
(H, 24-12-1938, p393)
Swaraj is a meaningless term, if we desire to keep a fifth of
India under perpetual subjection, and deliberately deny to them
the fruits of national culture. We are seeking the aid of God in this
great purifying movement, but we deny to the most deserving among
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 235
his creatures the rights of humanity. Inhuman ourselves we may
not plead before the Throne for deliverance from the inhumanity of
others. (YI, 25-5-1921, p165)
It is simple fanatical obstinacy to persist in persecuting man in
the sacred name of religion. (YI, 11-3-1926, p95)
For reforms of Hinduism and for its real protection, removal
of untouchability is the greatest thing...Removal of untouchability
is....a spiritual process. (YI, 6-1-1927, p2) If untouchability lives,
Hinduism must die. (H, 28-9-1947, p349)
I would far rather that Hinduism died than that untouchability
lived.190 In battling against untouchability and in dedicating myself
to that battle, I have no less an ambition than to see a complete
regeneration of humanity. It may be a mere dream, as unreal as the
silver in the sea-shell. It is not so to me while the dream lasts, and
in the words of Romain Rolland, ‘Victory lies not in realization of the
goal, but in a relentless pursuit after it. (YI, 26-11-1931, p372)
Untouchability and Caste It is a wrong to destroy caste because
of the outcaste, as it would be to destroy a body because of an ugly
growth in it or of a crop because of the weeds. The outcasteness, in
the sense we understand it, has therefore to be destroyed altogether.
It is an excess to be removed, if the whole system is not to perish.
Untouchability is the product, therefore, not of the caste system, but
of the distinction of high and low that has crept into Hinduism and
is corroding it. The attack on untouchability is thus an attack upon
this ‘high-and-low’-ness. The moment untouchability goes, the caste
system itself will be purified, that is to say, according to my dream,
it will resolve itself into the true Varnadharma, the four division of
society, each complementary of the other and none inferior or superior
to any other, each as necessary for the whole body of Hinduism as
any other. (H, 11-2-1933, p3)
Varnashrama Dharma Varnashrama Dharma defines man’s
mission on this earth. He is not born day after day to explore avenues
for amassing riches and to explore different means of livelihood; on
the contrary, man is born in order that he may utilize every atom of
his energy for the purpose of knowing his Maker. It restricts him,
therefore, for the purpose of holding body and soul together, to the
occupation of his forefathers. That and nothing more or nothing less
is Varnashrama Dharma. (YI, 27-10-1927, p357)
I do, however, believe in varna which is based on hereditary
236 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
occupations. Varnas are four to mark four universal occupations,-
imparting knowledge, defending the defenseless, carrying on
agriculture and commerce, and performing service through physical
labour. These occupations are common to all mankind, but Hinduism,
having recognized them as the law of our being, has made use of it
in regulating social relations and conduct. Gravitation affects us all,
whether one knows its existence or not. But scientists who knew the
law have made it yield results that have startled the world. Even
so has Hinduism startled the world by its discovery and application
of the law of varna. WhenHindus were seized with inertia, abuse
of varna resulted in innumerable castes, with unnecessary and
harmful restrictions as to inter-marriage and inter-dine. These
restrictions may be necessary in the interest of chastity and hygiene.
But a Brahmana who marries a Shudra girl, or vice versa, commits
no offence against the law of varnas. (YI, 4-6-1931, p129)
Today Brahmins and Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras are
mere labels. There is utter confusion of varna as I understand it and
I wish that all the Hindus will voluntarily call themselves Shudras.
That is the only way to demonstrate the truth of Brahminism and to
revive Varnadharma in its true state. (H, 25-3-1933,p3)
I believe that every man is born in the world with certain natural
tendencies. Every person is born with certain definit limitations
which he cannot overcome.
From a careful observation of those limitations the law of varna
was deduced.
It established certain spheres of actions for certain people with
certain tendencies. This avoided all unworthy competition. Whilst
recognizing limitations, the law of varna admitted of no distinctions
of high and low; on the one hand, it guaranteed to each the fruits of
his labours, and one the other, it prevented him from pressing upon
his neighbours. This great law has been degraded and fallen into
disrepute. But my conviction is that an ideal social order will only be
evolved when the implications of this law are fully understood and
given effect to. (MR, Oct. 1935, p413)
Inter-marriage and Inter-dining Though there is in Varnashrama
no prohibition against inter-marriage and interdining, there can
be no compulsion. It must be left to the unfettered choice of the
individual as to where he or she will marry or dine. (H, 16-11-1935,
p316)
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 237
Caste : ……I consider the four divisions alone to be fundamental,
natural and essential.
The innumerable sub castes are sometimes a convenience, often
a hindrance.
The sooner there is fusion the better. (YI, 8-12-1920, p3) From
the economic point of view, its value was once very great. It ensured
hereditary skill; it limited competition. It was the best remedy
against pauperism. And it had all the advantages of trade guilds.
Although it did not foster adventure or invention there, it is not
known to have come in the way either... Historically speaking, caste
may regarded as man’s experiment or social adjustment in the
laboratory of Indian society. If we can prove it to be a success, it can
be offered to the world as a leaven and as the best remedy against
heartless competition and social disintegration born of avarice and
greed. (YI, 5-1-1921, p2) Caste and Varna : ...I have frequently said
that I do not believe in caste in the modern sense. It is an excrescence
and a handicap on progress. Nor do I believe in inequalities between
human beings. We are all absolutely equal. But equality is of souls
and not bodies. Hence, it is a mental state. We need to think of, and
to assert, equality because we see great inequalities in the physical
world. We have to realize equality in the midst of this apparent
external inequality. Assumption of superiority by any person over
any other is a sin against God and man. Thus caste, in so far as it
0connots distinctions in status, is an evil. (YI, 4-6-1931, p129)
Caste distinctions have taken such deep root amongst us that they
have also infected the Muslims, Christians and followers of other
religions in India. It is true that class barriers are also to be found in
more or less degree in other parts of the world. This means that it is
a distemper common to the human race. It can be eliminated only by
the inculcation of religion in its true sense. I have not found sanction
for such barriers and distinctions in the scriptures of any religion.
In the eye of religion all men are equal. Learning, intellect or riches
do not entitle one to claim superiority over those who are lacking
in these. If any person is suffused and sanctified with the purifying
essence and discipline of true religion, he regards himself under the
obligation to share his advantages with those who have fewer. That
being so, in our present fallen state, true religion requires us all
to become Atishudras by choice. We must regard ourselves not as
owners, but as trustees of our wealth, and use it for the service of
society, taking for ourselves no more than a fair return for service
238 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
rendered. Under this system there would be none poor, none rich.
All religions would be held equal. All quarrels arising out of religion,
caste or economic grievance would cease to disturb peace on earth.
(Hu, 19-9-1945)
The Gospel of Non-Violence
The Law of Our Species I am not a visionary. I claim to be a
practical idealist. The religion of nonviolence is not meant merely for
the rishis and saints. It is meant for the common people as well. Nonviolence
is the law of our species as violence is the law of the brute.
The spirit lies dormant in the brute and he knows no law but that
of physical might. The dignity of man requires obedience to a higher
law-to the strength of the spirit.... The rishis who discovered the law
of non-violence in the midst of violence were greater geniuses than
Newton. They were themselves known the use of arms, they realized
their uselessness, and taught a weary world that its salvation lay
not through violence but through non-violence. (YI, 11-8-1920, p3)
My Ahimsa : I know only one way-the way of ahimsa. The way
of himsa goes against my grain. I do not want to cultivate the power
to inculcate himsa...The faith sustains me that He is the help of the
helpless, that He comes to one’s succor only when one throws himself
on His mercy. It is because of that faith that I cherish the hope that
God will one day show me a path which I may confidently commend
to the people. (YI, 10-10-1928, p342)
I have been a ‘gambler’ all my life. In my passion for finding truth
and in relentlessly following out my faith in non-violence, I have
counted no stake too great. In doing so I have erred, if at all, in
the company of the most distinguished scientist of any age and any
clime. (YI, 20-2-1930, p61)
I learnt the lesson of non-violence from my wife, when I tried to
bend her to my will. Her determined resistance to my will, on the
one hand, and her quiet submission to the suffering my stupidity
involved, on the other, ultimately made me ashamed of myself and
cured me of my stupidity in thinking that I was born to rule over her
and, in the end, she became my teacher in non-violence. (H, 24-12-
1938, p394)
The doctrine that has guided my life is not one of inaction but of
the highest action. (H, 28-6-1942, p201)
I must not...flatter myself with the belief—nor allow friends...to
entertain the belief that I have exhibited any heroic and demonstrable
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 239
non-violence in myself. All I can claim is that I am sailing in that
direction without a moment’s stop. (H, 11-1-1948, p504)
Character of Non-Violence
Non-violence is the law of the human race and is infinitely greater
than and superior to brute force. In the last resort it does not avail
to those who do not possess a living faith in the God of Love. Nonviolence
affords the fullest protection to one’s self-respect and sense
of honour, but not always to possession of land or movable property,
though its habitual practice does prove a better bulwark than the
possession of armed men to defend them. Non-violence, in the very
nature of things, is of no assistance in the defence of ill-gotten gains
and immoral acts. Individuals or nations who would practice nonviolence
must be prepared to sacrifice (nations to last man) their all
except honour. It is, therefore, inconsistent with the possession of
other people’s countries, i.e., modern imperialism, which is frankly
based on force for its defence. Non-violence is a power which can be
wielded equally by all-children, young men and women or grown-up
people, provided they have a living faith in the God of Love and have
therefore equal love for all mankind. When non-violence is accepted
as the law of life, it must pervade the whole being and not be applied
to isolated acts.
It is a profound error to suppose that, whilst the law is good
enough for individuals, it is not for masses of mankind. (H, 5-9-
1936, p236) For the way of non-violence and truth is sharp as the
razor’s edge. Its practice is more than our daily food. Rightly taken,
food sustains the body; rightly practiced non-violence sustains the
soul. The body food we can only take in measured quantities and at
stated intervals; non-violence, which is the spiritual food, we have
to take in continually. There is no such thing as satiation. I have to
be conscious every moment that I am pursuing the goal and have to
examine myself in terms of that goal.
Changeless Creed The very first step in non-violence is that
we cultivate in our daily life, as between ourselves, truthfulness,
humility, tolerance, loving kindness. Honesty, they say in English,
is the best policy. But, in terms of non-violence, it is not mere policy.
Policies may and do change. Non-violence is an unchangeablecreed.
It has to be pursued in face of violence raging around you. Nonviolence
with a non-violent man is no merit. In fact it becomes
difficult to say whether it is non-violence at all. But when it is pitted
240 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
against violence, then one realizes the difference between the two.
This we cannot do unless we are ever wakeful, ever vigilant, ever
striving. (H, 2-4-1938, p64)
The only thing lawful is non-violence. Violence can never be lawful
in the sense meant here, i.e., not according to man-made law but
according to the law made by Nature for man. (H, 27-10-1946, p369)
Faith in God [A living faith in non-violence] is impossible without
a living faith in God. A nonviolent man can do nothing save by the
power and grace of God. Without it he won’t have the courage to die
without anger, without fear and without retaliation. Such courage
comes from the belief that God sits in the hearts of all and that
there should be no fear in the presence of God. The knowledge of the
omnipresence of God also means respect for the lives even of those
who may be called opponents.... (H, 18-6-1938, p64)
Non-violence is an active force of the highest order. It is soul
force or the power of Godhead within us. Imperfect man cannot
grasp the whole of that Essence-he would not be able to bear its
full blaze, but even an infinitesimal fraction of it, when it becomes
active within us, can work wonders. The sun in the heavens fills the
whole universe with its life-giving warmth. But if one went too near
it, it would consume him to ashes. Even so it is with Godhead. We
become Godlike to the extent we realize non-violence; but we can
never become wholly God. (H, 12-11-1938, p326)
The fact is that non-violence does not work in the same way as
violence. It works in the opposite way. An armed man naturally
relies upon his arms. A man who is intentionally unarmed relies
upon the Unseen Force called God by poets, but called the Unknown
by scientists. But that which is unknown is not necessarily nonexistent.
God is the Force among all forces known and unknown.
Non-violence without reliance upon that Force is poor stuff to be
thrown in the dust. (H, 28-6-1942, p201)
Consciousness of the living presence of God within one is
undoubtedly the first requisite. (H, 29-6-1947, p209)
Religious Basis My claim to Hinduism has been rejected by some,
because I believe and advocate non-violence in its extreme form. They
say that I am a Christian in disguise. I have been even seriously told
that I am distorting the meaning of the Gita, when I ascribe to that
great poem the teaching of unadulterated nonviolence. Some of my
Hindu friends tell me that killing is a duty enjoined by the Gita
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 241
under certain circumstances. A very learned shastri only the other
day scornfully rejected my interpretation of the Gita and said that
there was no warrant for the opinion held by some commentators
that the Gita represented the eternal duel between forces of evil and
good, and inculcated the duty of eradicating evil within us without
hesitation, without tenderness. I state these opinions against nonviolence
in detail, because it is necessary to understand them, if we
would understand the solution I have to offer.... I must be dismissed
out of considerations. My religion is a matter solely between my
Maker and myself. If I am a Hindu, I cannot cease to be one even
though I may be disowned by the whole of the Hindu population. I
do however suggest that non-violence is the end of all religions. (YI,
29-5-1924, p175)
The lesson of non-violence is present in every religion, but I
fondly believe that, perhaps, it is here in India that its practice has
been reduced to a science. Innumerable saints have laid down their
lives in tapashcharya until poets had felt that the Himalayas became
purified in their snowy whiteness by means of their sacrifice. But all
this practice of non-violence is nearly dead today. It is necessary to
revive the eternal law of answering anger by love and of violence by
non-violence; and where can this be more readily done than in this
land of Kind Janaka and Ramachandra? (H, 30-3-1947, p86)
Hinduism’s Unique Contribution Non-violence is common to all
religions, but it has found the highest expression and application in
Hinduism. (I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from
Hinduism). Hinduism believes in the oneness not of merely all human
life but in the oneness of all that lives. Its worship of the cow is, in
my opinion, its unique contribution to the evolution of humanitarianism.
It is a practical application of the belief in the oneness and,
therefore, sacredness of all life. The great belief in transmigration is
a direct consequence of that belief. Finally, the discovery of the law
of Varnashrama is a magnificent result of the ceaseless search for
truth. (YI, 20-10-1927, p352)
I have also been asked wherefrom in Hinduism I have unearthed
ahimsa. Ahimsa is in Hinduism, it is in Christianity as well as in
Islam. Whether you agree with me or not, it is my bounden duty to
preach what I believe to be the truth as I see it. I am also sure that
ahimsa has never made anyone a coward. (H, 27-4-1947, p126)
No Matter of Diet Ahimsa is not a mere matter of dietetics, it
transcends it. What a man eats or drinks matters little; it is the
242 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
self-denial, the self-restraint behind it that matters. By all means
practice as much restraint in the choice of the articles of your diet
as you like. The restraint is commendable, even necessary, but it
touches only the fringe of ahimsa. A man may allow himself a wide
latitude in the matter of diet and yet may be a personification of
ahimsa and compel our homage, if is heart overflows with love and
melts at another’s woe, and has been purged of all passions. On
the other hand a man always over-scrupulous in diet is an utter
stranger to ahimsa and pitiful wretch, if he is a slave to selfishness
and passions and is hard of heart. (YI, 6-9-1928, pp300-1)
Road to Truth My love for non-violence is superior to every other
thing mundane or supramundane. It is equaled only by my love for
Truth, which is to me synonymous with non-violence through which
and which alone I can see and reach Truth. (YI, 20-2-1930, p61) ....
Without ahimsa it is not possible to seek and find Truth. Ahimsa
and Truth are so intertwined that it is practically impossible to
disentangle and separate them. They are like the two sides of a coin,
or rather of a smooth, unstamped, metallic disc. Who can say which
is the obverse, and which is the reverse? Nevertheless ahimsa is the
means; Truth is the end. Means to be means must always be within
our reach, and so ahimsa is our supreme duty. If we take care of the
means, we are bound to reach the end sooner of latter. When once we
have grasped this point, final victory is beyond question. (FYM, pp12-
Ahimsa is not the goal. Truth is the goal. But we have no means
of realizing truth in human relationships except through the practice
of ahimsa. A steadfast pursuit of ahimsa is inevitably bound to
truth—not so violence. That is why I swear by ahimsa. Truth came
naturally to me. Ahimsa I acquired after a struggle. But ahimsa
being the means, we are naturally more concerned with it in our
everyday life. It is ahimsa, therefore, that our masses have to be
educated in. Education in truth follows from it as a natural end. (H,
23-6-1946, p199)
No Cover for Cowardice My non-violence does not admit of
running away from danger and leaving dear ones unprotected.
Between violence and cowardly flight, I can only prefer violence
to cowardice. I can no more preach non-violence to a coward than
I can tempt a blind man to enjoy healthy scenes. Non-violence is
the summit of bravery. And in my own experience, I have had no
difficulty in demonstrating to men trained in the school of violence
the superiority of non-violence. As a coward, which I was for years, I
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 243
harboured violence. I began to prize nonviolence only when I began
to shed cowardice. Those Hindus who ran away from the post of duty
when it was attended with danger did so not because they were nonviolent,
or because they were afraid to strike, but because they were
unwilling to die or even suffer an injury. A rabbit that runs away
from the bull terrier is not particularly non-violent. The poor thing
trembles at the sight of the terrier and runs for very life. (YI, 28-5-
1924, p178)
Non-violence is not a cover for cowardice, but it is the supreme
virtue of the brave. Exercise of non-violence requires far greater
bravery than that of swordsmanship. Cowardice is wholly inconsistent
with non-violence. Translation from swordsmanship to non-violence
is possible and, at times, even an easy stage. Non-violence, therefore,
presupposes ability to strike. It is a conscious deliberate restraint put
upon one’s desire for vengeance. But vengeance is any day superior
to passive, effeminate and helpless submission. Forgiveness is
higher still. Vengeance too is weakness. The desire for vengeance
comes out of fear of harm, imaginary or real. A dog barks and bites
when he fears. A man who fears no one on earth would consider it
too troublesome even to summon up anger against one who is vainly
trying to injure him. The sun does not wreak vengeance upon little
children who throw dust at him. They only harm themselves in the
act. (YI, 12-8-1926, p285) The path of true non-violence requires
much more courage than violence. (H, 4-8-1946, pp248-9)
The minimum that is required of a person wishing to cultivate
the ahimsa of the brave is first to clear one’s thought of cowardice
and, in the light of the clearance, regulate his conduct in every
activity, great or small. Thus the votary must refuse to be cowed
down by his superior, without being angry. He must, however, be
ready to sacrifice his post, however remunerative it may be. Whilst
sacrificing his all, if the votary has no sense of irritation against his
employer, he has ahimsa of the brave in him.
Assume that a fellow-passenger threatens my son with assault
and I reason with the would-be-assailant who then turns upon me.
If then I take his blow with grace and dignity, without harbouring
any ill-will against him, I exhibit the ahimsa of the brave. Such
instances are of everyday occurrence and can be easily multiplied.
If I succeed in curbing my temper every time and, though able to
give blow for blow, I refrain, I shall develop the ahimsa of the brave
which will never fail me and which will compel recognition from the
244 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
most confirmed adversaries. (H, 17-11-1946, p404)
Inculcation of cowardice is against my nature. Ever since my
return from South Africa, where a few thousand had stood up not
unsuccessfully against heavy odds, I have made it my mission to
preach true bravery which ahimsa means. (H, 1-6-1947, p175)
Humility Essential If one has...pride and egoism, there is no
non-violence. Non-violence is impossible without humility. My own
experience is that, whenever I have acted non-violently, I have been
led to it and sustained in it by the higher promptings of an unseen
power. Through my own will I should have miserably failed. When I
first went to jail, I quailed at the prospect. I had heard terrible things
about jail life. But I had faith in God’s protection. Our experience was
that those who went to jail in a prayerful spirit came out victorious,
those who had gone in their own strength failed. There is no room for
self-pitying in it either when you say God is giving you the strength.
Self-pity comes when you do a thing for which you expect recognition
from others. But there is no question of recognition. (H, 28-1-1939,
p442) It was only when I had learnt to reduce myself to zero that I
was able to evolve the power of Satyagraha in South Africa. (H, 6-5-
1939, p113)
The Power of Non-Violence
Non-violene in its dynamic condition means conscious suffering.
It does not mean meek submission to the will of the evil-doer, but it
means the pitting of one’s whole soul against the will of the tyrant.
Working under this law of our being, it is possible for a single
individual to defy the whole might of an unjust empire to save his
honour, his religion, his soul and lay the foundation for that empire’s
fall or its regeneration. (YI, 1-8-1920, p3)
Active Force The non-violence of my conception is a more active
and more real fighting against wickedness than retaliation whose
very nature is to increase wickedness. I contemplate a mental and,
therefore, a moral opposition to immoralities. I seek entirely to blunt
the edge of the tyrant’s sword, not by putting up against it a sharperedged
weapon, but by disappointing his expectation that I would
be offering physical resistance. The resistance of the should that I
should offer instead would elude him. It would at first dazzle him,
and at last compel recognition from him, which recognition would
not humiliate him but would uplift him. It may be urged that this
again is an ideal state. And so it is. The propositions from which I
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 245
have drawn my arguments are as true as Euclid’s definitions, which
are none the less true because in practice we are unable to even
draw Euclid’s line on a blackboard. But even a geometrician finds
it impossible to get on without bearing in mind Euclid’s definitions.
Nor may we...dispense with the fundamental propositions on which
the doctrine of Satyagraha is based. (YI, 8-10-1925, p346)
I admit that the strong will rob the weak and that it is sin to be
weak. But this is said of the soul in man, not of the body. If it be said
of the body, we could never be free from the sin of weakness. But
the strength of soul can defy a whole world in arms against it. This
strength is open to the weakest in body. (YI, 6-5-1926, p164)
Non-violence is the greatest force at the disposal of mankind. It
is mightier than the mightiest weapon of destruction devised by the
ingenuity of man. Destruction is not the law of the humans. Man
lives freely by his readiness to die, if need be, at the hands of his
brother, never by killing him. Every murder or other injury, no
matter for what cause, committed or inflicted on another is a crime
against humanity. (H, 20-7-1935, pp180-1)
Non-violence is like radium in its action. An infinitesimal quantity
of it embedded in a malignant growth acts continuously, silently and
ceaselessly till it has transformed the whole mass of the diseased
tissue into a healthy one. Similarly, even a little of true non-violence
acts in a silent, subtle, unseen way and leavens the whole society.
(H, 12-11-1938, p327)
Matchless Bravery An armed soldier relies on his weapons for
his strength. Take away from him his weapons-his gun or his sword,
and he generally becomes helpless. But a person who has truly
realized the principle of non-violence has the God-given strength for
his weapon and the world has not known anything that can match
it. (H, 19- 11-1938, pp341-2)
A small body of determined spirits fired by an unquenchable faith
in their mission can alter the course of history. (ibid, p343)
Non-violence of the strong is any day stronger than that of the
bravest soldier fully armed or a whole host. (H, 12-5-1946, p128)
Exercise in Faith The hardest metal yields to sufficient heat.
Even so the hardest heart must melt before sufficiency of the heat
of non-violence. And there is no limit to the capacity of non-violence
to generate heat. Every action is a resultant of a multitude of forces
even of a contrary nature. There is no waste of energy. So we learn
246 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
in the books on mechanics. This is equally true of human actions.
The difference is that in the one case we generally know the forces at
work, and when we do, we can mathematically foretell the resultant.
In the case of human actions, they result from a concurrence of forces
of most of which we have no knowledge. But our ignorance must not
be made to serve the cause of disbelief in the power of these forces.
Rather is our ignorance a cause for greater faith. And nonviolence
being the mightiest force in the world and also the most elusive in
its working, it demands the greatest exercise of faith. Even as we
believe in God in faith, so have we to believe in non-violence in faith.
(H, 7-1-1939, p417)
Violence like water, when it has an outlet, rushes forward
furiously with an overwhelming force. Non-violence cannot act
madly. It is the essence of discipline. But, when it is set going, no
amount of violence can crush it. For full play, it requires unsullied
purity and an unquenchable faith... (H, 21-3-1939,p433)
A Science Ahimsa is a science. The word ‘failure’ has no place in
the vocabulary of science. Failure to obtain the expected result is
often the precursor to further discoveries. (H, 6-5-1939, p113)
If the function of himsa is to devour all it comes across, the function
of ahimsa is to rush into the mouth of himsa. In an atmosphere of
ahimsa one has no scope to put his ahimsa to the test. It can be
tested only in the face of himsa. (H, 13-5-1939, p121)
Violence can only be effectively met by non-violence. This is an
old,established truth...that the weapon of violence, even if it was the
atom bomb, became useless when matched against non-violence.
That very few understand how to wield this mighty weapon is true.
It requires a lot of understanding and strength of mind. It is unlike
what is needed in military schools and colleges. The difficulty one
experiences in meeting himsa with ahimsa arises from weakness of
mind. (H, 1-6-1947, p172)
The Deed, not Doer ‘Hate the sin and not the sinner’ is a precept
which, though easy enough to understand, is rarely practised, and
that is why the poison of hatred spreads in the world. This ahimsa
is the basis of the search for truth. I am realizing every day that
the search is vain unless it is founded on ahimsa as the basis. It is
quite proper to resist and attack a system, but to resist and attack
its author is tantamount to resisting and attacking oneself. For we
are all tarred with the same brush, and are children of one and the
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 247
same creator, and as such, the divine powers within us are infinite. To
slight a single human being is to slight those divine powers, and thus
to harm not only that Being but with Him the whole world. (A, p203).
Man and his deed are two distinct things. Whereas a good deed
should call forth approbation and a wicked deed disapprobation, the
doer of the deed, whether good or wicked, always deserves respect or
pity as the case may be. (ibid) Those who seek to destroy men rather
than manners adopt the latter and become worse than those whom
they destroy under the mistaken belief that the manners will die with
the men. They do not know the root of the evil. (YI, 17-3-1927, p85).
It is the acid test of non-violence that, in a non-violent conflict,
there is no rancour left behind, and in the end the enemies are
converted into friends. That was my experience in South Africa, with
General Smuts. He started with being my bitterest opponent and
critic. Today he is my warmest friend. (H, 12-11-1938, p327)
The principal implication of ahimsa is that the ahimsa in us ought
to soften and not to stiffen our opponents’ attitude to us; it ought
to melt him; it ought to strike a responsive chord in his heart. As
ahimsa-ites, can you say that you practice genuine ahimsa? Can you
say that you receive the arrows of the opponent on your bare breasts
without returning them? Can you say that you are not angry, that
you are not perturbed by his criticism? (H, 13-5-1939, p121)
By reason of life-long practice of ahimsa, I claim to be an expert
in it, though very imperfect. Speaking in absolute terms, the more
I practice it the clearer I see how far I am from the full expression
of ahimsa in my life. It is his ignorance of this, the greatest duty of
man in the world, which makes him say that in this age non-violence
has little scope in the face of violence, whereas I make bold to say
that in this age of the Atom Bomb unadulterated non-violence is the
only force that can confound all the tricks put together of violence.
(H,16-11-1947, p412)
Training for Non-Violence
“How are we to train individuals or communities in this difficult
art?” There is no royal road, except through living the creed in your
life which must be a living sermon. Of course, the expression in one’s
own life presupposes great study, tremendous perseverance, and
thorough cleansing of one’s self of all the impurities. If for mastering
of the physical sciences you have to devote a whole life-time, how
many life-times may be needed for mastering the greatest spiritual
248 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
force that mankind has known?
But why worry even if it means several life-times? For, if this is
the only permanent thing in life, if this is the only thing that counts,
then whatever effort you bestow on mastering it is well spent. Seek ye
first the Kingdom of Heaven and everything else shall be added unto
you. The Kingdom of Heaven is ahimsa. (H, 14-3-1936, p39) Arms
are surely unnecessary for a training in ahimsa. In fact the arms, if
any, have to be thrown away, as the Khansaheb did in the Frontier
Province. Those who hold that it is essential to learn violence before
we can learn non-violence, would hold that only sinners can be saints.
Fearlessness the Pre-requisite Just as one must learn the art of
killing in the training for violence, so one must learn the art of dying
in the training for non-violence. Violence does not mean emancipation
from fear, but discovering the means of combating the cause of fear.
Non-violence, on the other hand, has no cause for fear. The votary of
non-violence has to cultivate the capacity for sacrifice of the highest
type in order to be free from fear. He racks not if he should lose his
land, his wealth, his life. He who has not overcome all fear cannot
practice ahimsa to perfection. The votary of ahimsa has only one
fear, that is of God. He who seeks refuge in God ought to have a
glimpse of the Atman that transcends the body; and the moment
one has a glimpse of the Imperishable Atman, one sheds the love of
the perishable body. Training in non-violence is thus diametrically
opposed to training in violence. Violence is needed for the protection
of things external, non-violence is needed for the protection of the
Atman, for the protection of one’s honour.
This non-violence cannot be learnt by staying at home. It needs
enterprise. In order to test ourselves we should learn to dare danger
and death, mortify the flesh, and acquire the capacity to endure
all manner of hardships. He who trembles or take to his heels
the moment he sees two people fighting is not non-violent, but a
coward. A non-violent person will lay down his life in preventing
such quarrels. The bravery of the non-violent is vastly superior to
that of the violent. The badge of the violent is his weapon-spear, or
sword, or rifle. God is the shield of the non-violent. This is not course
of training for one intending to learn non-violence. But it is easy to
evolve one from the principles I have laid down. (H, 1-9-1940, p268)
Non-violence of the Brave Non-violence does not require any
outside or outward training. It simply requires the will not to kill
even in retaliation and the courage to face death without revenge.
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 249
This is no sermon on ahimsa but cold reason and the statement of a
universal law. Given the unquenchable faith in the law, no provocation
should prove too great for the exercise of forbearance. This I have
described as the non-violence of the brave. (H, 8-9-1946, p296) That
non-violence which only an individual can use is not of much use in
terms of society. Man is a social being. His accomplishments to be of
use must be such as any person with sufficient diligence can attain.
That which can be exercised only among friends is of value only as
a spark of non-violence. It cannot merit the appellation of ahimsa.
‘Enmity vanishes before ahimsa’ is a great aphorism. It means that
the greatest enmity requires an equal measure of ahimsa for its
abatement.
Cultivation of this virtue may need long practice, ever extending to
several births. It does not become useless on that account. Traveling
along the route, the pilgrim will meet richer experiences from day
to day, so that he may have a glimpse of the beauty he is destined
to see at the top. This will add to his zest. No one is entitled to infer
from this that the path will be a continuous carpet of roses without
thorns. A poet has sung that the way to reach God accrues only to the
very brave, never to the faint-hearted. The atmosphere today is so
much saturated with poison that one refuses to recollect the wisdom
of the ancients and to perceive the varied little experience of ahimsa
in action. ‘A bad turn is neutralized by a good’ ,is a wise saying of
daily experience in practice. Why can we not see that if the sum total
of the world’s activities was destructive, it would have come to an
end long ago? Love, otherwise, ahimsa, sustains this planet of ours.
This much must be admitted. The precious grace of life has to be
strenuously cultivated, naturally so because it is uplifting. Descent
is easy, not so ascent. A large majority of us being undisciplined, our
daily experience is that of fighting or swearing at one another on
the slightest pretext. This, the richest grace of ahimsa, will descend
easily upon the owner of hard discipline. (H, 14-12-1947, p468)
Application of Non-Violence
If one does not practice non-violence in one’s personal relations
with others, and hopes to use it in bigger affairs, one is vastly
mistaken. Non-violence like charity must begin at home. But if it is
necessary for the individual to be trained in non-violence, it is even
more necessary for the nation to be trained likewise. One cannot be
nonviolent in one’s own circle and violent outside it. Or else, one is
not truly nonviolent even in one’s own circle; often the non-violence
250 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
is only in appearance. It is only when you meet with resistance, as
for instance, when a thief or a murderer appears, that your nonviolence
is put on its trail. You either try or should try to oppose the
thief with his own weapons, or you try to disarm him by love. Living
among decent people, your conduct may not be described as a nonviolent.
Mutual forbearance is non-violence. Immediately, therefore,
you get the conviction that non-violence is the law of life, you have to
practice it towards those who act violently towards you, and the law
must apply to nations as individuals. Training no doubt is necessary.
And beginnings are always small.
But if the conviction is there, the rest will follow. (H, 28-1-1939,
pp441-2)
Universality of Non-violence Non-violence to be a creed has to
be all-pervasive. I cannot be non-violent about one activity of mine
and violent about others. (H, 12-10-1935, p376) It is a blasphemy
to say that non-violence can only be practiced by individuals and
never by nations which are composed of individuals. (H, 12-11-1938,
p328) In my opinion, non-violence is not passivity in any shape or
form. Non-violence, as I understand it, is the most active force in the
world...Non-violence is the supreme law. During my half a century of
experience, I have not yet come across a situation when I had to say
that I was helpless, that I had no remedy in terms of non-violence.
(H, 24-12-1938, p393)
Cultivation of Non-violence I am an irrepressible optimist.
My optimism rests on my belief in the infinite possibilities of the
individual to develop non-violence. The more you develop it in your
own being, the more infectious it becomes till it over-whelms your
surroundings and by and by might over sweep the world. (H, 28-1-
1939, p443) I have known from early youth that non-violence is not
a cloistered virtue to be practiced by the individual for his peace
and final salvation, but it is a rule of conduct for society if it is to
live consistently with human dignity and make progress towards
the attainment of peace for which it has been yearning for ages past.
(GCG, pp42-44, pp170-1)
To practice non-violence in mundane matters is to know its true
value. It is to bring heaven upon earth. There is no such thing as
the other world. All works are one. There is no ‘here’ and no ‘there’.
As Jeans has demonstrated, the whole universe including the most
distant stars, invisible even through the most powerful telescope in
the world, is compressed in an atom. I hold it, therefore, to be wrong to
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 251
limit the use of non-violence to cave dwellers and for acquiring merit
for a favoured position in the other world. All virtue ceases to have
use if it serves no purpose in every walk of life. (H, 26-7- 1942, p248)
Use on Mass Scale Unfortunately for us, we are strangers to
the non-violence of the brave on a mass scale. Some even doubt the
possibility of the exercise of non-violence by groups, much less by
masses of people. They restrict its exercise to exceptional individuals.
Only, mankind can have no use of it if it is always reserved only for
individuals. (H, 8-9-1946, p296)
Efficacy I have been practicing with scientific precision nonviolence
and its possibilities for an unbroken period of over fifty
years. I have applied it in every walk of life, domestic, institutional,
economic and political. I know of no single case in which it has failed.
Where it has seemed sometimes to have failed, I have ascribed it to
my imperfections. I claim no perfection for myself. But I do claim
to be a passionate seeker after Truth, which is but another name
for God. In the course of that search, the discovery of non-violence
came to me. Its spread is my life mission. I have no interest in living
except for the prosecution of that mission. (H, 6-7-1940, pp185-6)
There is no hope for the aching world except through the narrow
and straight path of non-violence. Millions like me may fail to prove
the truth in their own lives, that would be their failure, never of the
eternal law. (H, 29-6-1947, p209)
The Non-Violent Society
I hold that nonviolence is not merely a personal virtue. It is also
a social virtue to be cultivated like the other virtues. Surely society
is largely regulated by the expression of non-violence in its mutual
dealings. What I ask for is an extension of it on a larger, national
and international scale. (H, 7-1-1939, p417)
All society is held together by non-violence, even as the earth is
held in her position by gravitation. But when the law of gravitation
was discovered, the discovery yielded results of which our ancestors
had no knowledge. Even so, when society is deliberately constructed
in accordance with the law of nonviolence, its structure will be
different in material particulars from what it is today. But I cannot
say in advance what the government based on nonviolence will be
like. What is happening today is disregard of the law of non-violence
and enthronement of violence as if it were an eternal law. (H, 11-
12-1939, p8) Society based on nonviolence can only consist of groups
252 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
settled in villages in which voluntary co-operation is the condition of
dignified and peaceful existence. (H, 13-1-1940, pp410-11)
The Government The Government cannot succeed in becoming
entirely non-violent, because it represents all the people. I do not
today conceive of such a golden age. But I do believe in the possibility
of a predominantly nonviolent society. And I am working for it. (H,
9-3-1940, p31)
There remains the question as to whether in an ideal society,
there should be any or no government. I do not think we need worry
ourselves about this at the moment. If we continue to work for such
a society, it will slowly come into being to an extent, such that the
people can benefit by it. Euclid’s line is one without breadth, but no
one has so far been able to draw it and never will. All the same, it is
only by keeping the ideal line in mind that we have made progress
in geometry. What is true here is true of every ideal.
Anarchy It must be remembered that nowhere in the world does
a State without government exist. If at all it could ever come into
being, it would be in India; for, ours is the only country where the
attempt has, at any rate, been made. We have not yet been able
to show that bravery to the degree which is necessary and for the
attainment of which there is only one way. Those who have faith in
the latter have to demonstrate it. In order to do so, the fear of death
has to be completely shed, just as we have shed the fear of prisons.
(H, 15-9-1946, p309)
Democracy and Non-violence Science of war leads one to
dictatorship pure and simple. Science of nonviolence can alone lead
one to pure democracy. (H, 15-10-1938, p290)
Democracy and violence can ill go together. The State that
are today nominally democratic have either to become frankly
totalitarian, or if they are to become truly democratic, they must
become courageously non-violent. (H, 12-11-1938, p328)
Holding the view that, without the recognition of non-violence
on a national scale, there is no such thing as a constitutional or
democratic government, I devote my energy to the propagation
of non-violence as the law of our life, individual, social, political,
national and international. I fancy that I have seen the light, though
dimly. I write cautiously for I do not profess to know the whole of
the Law. If I know the success of my experiments, I know also my
failures. But the successes are enough to fill me with undying hope.
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 253
I have often said that if one takes care of the means, the end will
take care of itself. Non-violence is the means; the end for everyone is
complete independence. There will be an international League only
when all the nations, big or small, composing it is fully independent.
The nature of that independence will correspond to the extent of
nonviolence assimilated by the nations concerned. One thing is
certain. In a society based on non-violence, the smallest nation will
feel as tall as the tallest. The idea of superiority and inferiority will
be wholly obliterated. ...The conclusion is irresistible that for one like
me, wedded to non-violence, constitutional or democratic government
is a distant dream so long as nonviolence is not recognized as a living
force, an inviolable creed, not a mere policy. While I prate about
universal non-violence, my experiment is confined to India. If it
succeeds, the world will accept it without effort. There is however a
bit BUT. The pause does not worry me. My faith is brightest in the
midst of impenetrable darkness. (H, 11-12-1939, p8)
Use of Power By its very nature, nonviolence cannot ‘seize’
power, nor can that be its goal. But non-violence can do more; it can
effectively control and guide power without capturing the machinery
of government. That is its beauty. There is an exception, of course. If
the nonviolent non-co-operation of the people is so complete that the
administration ceases to function or if the administration crumbles
under the impact of a foreign invasion and a vacuum results, the
people’s representatives will then step in and fill it. Theoretically
that is possible. But the use of power need not necessarily be violent.
A father wields power over his children; he may even punish but not
by inflicting violence. The most effective exercise of power is that
which irks least. Power rightly exercised must sit light as a flower;
no one should feel the weight of it. The people accepted the authority
of the Congress willingly. I was on more than one occasion invested
with the absolute power of dictatorship. But everybody knew that
my power rested on their willing acceptance. They could set me
aside at any time and I would have stepped aside without a murmur.
Prophets and supermen are born only once in an age. But if even a
single individual realizes the ideal of ahimsa in its fullness, he covers
and redeems the whole society. Once Jesus had blazed the trail, his
twelve disciples could carry on his mission without his presence.
It needed the perseverance and genius of so many generations
of scientists to discover the laws of electricity, but today everybody,
even children use electric power in their daily life. Similarly, it will
254 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
not always need a perfect being to administer an ideal State once it
has come into being. What is needed is a thorough social awakening
to begin with. The rest will follow. To take an instance nearer home,
I have presented to the working class the truth that true capital is
not silver or gold, but the labour of their hands and feet and their
intelligence. Once labour develops that awareness, it would not need
my presence to enable it to make use of the power that it will release.
(TNH, pp91-93)
The Non-Violent State
Many have shaken their heads as they have said, “But you can’t
teach nonviolence to the masses. It is only possible for individuals and
that too in rare cases.” That is, in my opinion, a gross self-deception.
If mankind was not habitually non-violent, it would have been selfdestroyed
ages ago. But in the duel between forces of violence and
non-violence, the latter have always come out victorious in the end.
The truth is that we have not had patience enough to wait and apply
ourselves whole-heartedly to the spread of non-violence among the
people as a means for political ends. (YI, 2-1-1930, p4)
Conclusion
It has been revealed that the values and ideals on Gandhian
line develop a wholesome personality comprises of physical, mental,
intellectual, social, emotional and spiritual aspects. Gandhian
Philosophy tries to establish the premise that ‘work is life and life
is work’, as supposed by Mahatma Gandhi which is reflected in
his educational views. It appears that positive work attitude, selfreliance
and dignity of labour need to be developed at the earlier stage
to negotiate future life with ease. So the author has categorically
emphasized on the work projects that need to be followed in Secondary
Education simultaneously with the cognitive development of the
pupils. It is noticed that activity oriented education through work
projects at Secondary level develop competencies and capabilities
in students. This is the way of achieving mastery learning and
developing relationships between acquiring learning and leading
life keeping pace to the needs of the society. Mahatma Gandhi
believed that craft centric education would transform education,
society in general and the personality of youth which is expected
today. Gandhi has laid a novel educational theory which aims at
character building. His‘ashram models’- Phoenix and Tolstoy
ashrams in South Africa, and Sabarmati and Sevagram ashrams in
Gandhian Thought and the Secondary.... 255
India advocated self- learning, self- discipline and inner awakening.
His experiments on education in the respective historical contexts
teaches to follow the principle of teaching method- ‘learning by
doing’ His educational thought was applied for gaining complete
living in future into a concurrent process. His philosophy of nonviolence
became an increasingly central and dominant part of his
experiment in education. His outstanding contribution to education
is the combination of theory and practice, inculcation of glorious
heritage and ancient past through his scheme of education. He viewed
education as purposive and meaningful manual work organized
as an integral part of school education resulting into products or
services useful to the community. The real truth is that activity
oriented education on Gandhian viewpoints would bring all round
development of the learners promoting self-reliance, increasing
productivity through the proper development of work skills and
values and accelerating the process of economic development in the
country through community service and social work by students.
His educational thought helped to remove distinctions between
manual workers and white colour workers creating a new social
bondage based upon co-operation and mutual understanding. The
author has followed Gandhan thought and opined that priority will
have to be given on the development of the culture and values of
the heart. Gandhian thought should be considered as the foundation
for building the character of the pupils because he wanted to make
his followers to be disciplined by practising and observing Truth,
Tolerance, Non -violence Love, Chastity, Control of Passion, Nonstealing,
Non-possession of property, Physical Labour and Swadeshi
Outlook. His scheme of education was based on the principles of
self-support and economic self -sufficiency. His scheme of education
encouraged creativity, fostered open communication, demonstrated
forward looking attitude, shared responsibilities and exhibited
commitments which helped the students to meet the challenges
of the future. His education made the morality of the students
strong and developed social, moral, economic values to the level of
expectation. The development of life skills defined by the WHO could
also be possible if Gandhi’s philosophy is followed. The abilities for
adaptive and positive health behavior will enable individuals to deal
effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life, by
developing in them generic skills related to a wide variety of areas
such as health and social needs on Gandhian view points. It has
256 Gandhian Views : Reshaping Education and Society
been shown that Life skills - education through the involvement in
work projects promotes self-esteem, self-confidence, self- efficiency,
problem solving and decision making capacity, creative thinking
and critical thinking, social awareness and empathy, inter personal
realation and communicative skill among children in-turn improving
quality of life. It is shown by the author that work oriented
education helps in improving mental well being of the children,
lessens violent behaviour, and increases self-control and social
behaviour. Group projects create cooperative behaviour and group
spirit which improves interpersonal relationship, communication
skills and social awareness. It is also found that if the curricular
and co-curricular activities are designed on Gandhian line, erosion
of values can be prevented and the value related crises presently
prevailed in the educational scenario can be brought under control.
In this way students will be capable of using Head, Hand and Heart
appropriately. Education if considered as the tool of changing human
made civilization expecting to be based on ideal societal norms,
glorious ancient heritage and refined culture and values, Gandhian
philosophy is the only solution to elevate all crises prevailed in the
present century.
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