POLICIES OF EDUCATION
IN INDIA DURING THE BRITISH PERIOD
Dr. Goutam Patra
gtmpatra21@gmail.com
Introduction:
Education during the British period was colonial in nature and implied for the
benefit of the colonial Govt. Diarchy was introduced by the Govt. of India Act,
1919 and the central Govt. lost its control on education as it became the
matter of provinces. The central Govt. established an Advisory Board of
Education (CABE) in 1920 to help the provincial Govt. regarding different
educational matters but provincial Govt. did not want to accept any advice of
CABE. So development of education was neglected. The national leaders demanded
national pattern of education based on Indian culture and on the principle of
equal opportunity irrespective of caste, creed, religion and sex. In Secondary
education, progress was more or less satisfactory. The Govt. of India Act, 1935
was passed and the help regarding the development of secondary education was
achieved to construct new educational institutions and for arranging
scholarships for good students. But not a single language, a number of
languages was used as instructional media. In 1937 Basic Education scheme was
introduced by Mahatma Gandhi for a short period of time. In this scheme there
was no place of English as the medium of instruction in secondary level. From
1921 to 1937 decentralized education system to a certain extent was achieved.
EARLY MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN BENGAL
The Early Missionaries provided a link between
medieval and modern education. There were some special characteristics of
missionary’s educational enterprise. They established certain types of institutions.
They are Parochial schools, Orphanages, Secondary schools, Teacher Training
schools, Clergymen’s college etc. Schools were first established in Kuthis for
the European children. Indigenous type of elementary education attracted the
attention of the missionaries. They filled the vacuum in education caused by
the decline of Mughal dynasty. Missionary’s school first broke down educational
caste barrier. The missionaries first introduced the use of press and
widespread use of vernaculars came into existence for mass education. History,
Geography and general science were included in the traditional curriculum. Time
table, gradation in evaluation, school regulations, vocational education and
new cultural elements all these elements were brought by the missionaries. The
missionaries of the 17th and 18th centuries paved the way
for the introduction of western education. [1]
Missionary
schools got reorganized and modern school’s features were noticed. The main
aims of these schools were religious. So teaching of Bible was essential.
School time table was followed and Sunday was a closed day. New curriculum was
framed. The world History and Geography were included in the curriculum. The
missionaries had arranged for publication of printed books. So books were
easily available and cost became low. The Portuguese can be regarded as the
founders of modern system of education in India. They established Jesuit
College for higher education and imparted education in local language. The
Dutch extended their commercial activities at Chinsura and Hooghly and
established schools for the education of the children of Company’s servants.
The Indian students were also allowed to take admission in these schools. The
French and the Danes established their schools and tried to spread education in
our country.
Policy of Warren
Hastings: The Company’s Supreme council in India
under the leadership of Warren Hastings adopted a new policy to increase
British influence showing patronage to traditional learning. Hastings adopted a
policy of ‘benevolent neutrality’ in social, religious and cultural affairs.
Missionaries were given permission to spread western education. At the same
time revival of traditional Hindu and Muslim education was also given more
emphasis to create competent Hindu and Muslim Law –interpreters in courts
presided over by English Judges. Warren Hastings established the Calcutta
Madrash in 1781 where Islamic Theology, Law, Logic, Grammar, Arithmetic and
Arabic language were taught.
Hindu theology, Law, Grammar, Medicine and
Sanskrit language were taught at Benaras Sanskrit College established by
Jonathan Duncan in 1791 and later at Calcutta Sanskrit College established in
1824. Hastings patronized the translation of members of the society were
Darakanath Tagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Ram Kamal Sen, Kashinath Mallick and other eminent persons of Bengal. H.H.
Wilson, William hunter, James Prinsep and Charles Grant fostered the literary
activities of the society. The valuable collections of manuscripts,
Inscriptions and coins preserved in the society help the researchers to find
out the glorious tradition of the past.[2]
Contribution of
Serampur Trio: William Carey, William Ward and
Marshman were called the Serampur Trio. Serampur press was founded in 1800 A.D.
Carey and Marshman established Calcutta Benevolent Institutions in 1810. The
Serampore Trio established more than 20 schools by 1815. Serampur College was
established in 1818 where Western arts and sciences were taught. Serampur Trio
immensely contributed towards the growth of Bengali language and literature and
spread western education in Bengal. They contributed for the development of
Bengali Grammar and literary translation. Carey wrote a Bengali Dictionary
containing 85000 words including derivatives and syntax.
Charles Grant
Observation: Charles Grant an officer studied
the problems of education in India and wrote his observation report to the
British Parliament about the deplorable condition of India and suggested to
spread education to improve the behavior pattern of the Indians. English
education was needed to catch up with the latest trends in literature, science,
philosophy, religion and other subjects. He suggested for appointing English
Teachers first and later they might be replaced by the Indian Teachers. The
British Parliament gradually accepted the suggestions and implemented the same.
In 1813 when the Charter Act was published, the responsibility of the British
Govt. to spread education was noticed.
The Charter Act of
1813: The Charter Act of 1813 was published
due to the efforts of Charles grant. So he was regarded as the father of modern
education in India. The Charter Act of 1813 revolutionized the traditional
system of education and now it became a responsibility of the company to spread
education. The clause No 43 of the charter directed the company to spend at
least one Lakh rupees on education. The provision of Charter Act related to
educational grant recognized the duty of the Govt. and a system of educational
grant first introduced. Moreover, the clause opened a new chapter of
controversy regarding the type and medium of instruction. The controversy was
between oriental and occidental. The oriental school led by Mr. Prinsep had
derived inspiration from warren Hastings, Minto, Metcaffe and Wilson and others
of Asiatic Society. According to them oriental culture was no inferior to
western culture. Hence the company would spend the sanctioned rupees for the
development of oriental learning through the oriental classical languages.
Occidental
School called the oriental literature worthless and full of superstition. So
they opined that western knowledge should be directly introduced through the
medium of English and the natives would be taught Western science. They wanted
to produce Govt. employees at reasonable cost would best be possible through
English education through English language. The Orientalist and Occidentalist
group of G.C.P.I. established in 1823 could not have uniformity in executing
the educational activities.
MACAULAY’S MINUTE:
Lord Macaulay was appointed the Law Member of the council of Governor General
in 1834 when the controversy between the Orientalist and Occidentalist had
become more violent. He was appointed the Chairman of the General committee of
Public Instructions of Bengal by Lord William Bentick who gave him to solve the
controversy. He advocated western education through the medium of English. He
proposed to stop the grants of Oriental Institutions and save the unnecessary
expenditure. He wanted to utilize the grant of one lakh properly in opening
English schools and developing the Western system of education in India.
Macaulay made a declaration stating that
the British Government’s main aim to spread
European literature and science among Indians
and the money granted will be spent for that purpose. He also stated
that Oriental literature will not be published in future. Hundred years later
Mahatma Gandhi rejected the views and wanted to form a system of education
which would be based on Indian tradition and culture and emphasized on the
mother tongue and regional language excluding English as the medium of
instruction.
RESOLUTION OF LORD WILLIAM BENTICK:
Lord William Bentick accepted the proposal of Lord Macaulay and took a
resolution declared first by the British Govt. in 1835. It was stated in the
resolution that the main object of the British Govt. ought to be the promotion
of European literature and science among the natives of India. Promotion of
Western sciences and arts was acknowledged but the traditional Indian education,
sciences and arts were not given importance. Gandhian educational thought
helped the revival of traditional education of our country. William Bentinck
passed the following orders in resolution:
First:
His Lordship-in-Council is of the opinion that the great object of the British
Government ought to be the promotion of European literature and science among
the natives of India; and that all the funds appropriated for the purpose of
education would be best employed on English education alone.
Second:
His Lordship-in –Council directs that all the funds which these reforms will
leave at disposal of the committee be henceforth employed in imparting to the
native population a knowledge of English literature and science through the
medium of English language; and his Lordship-in –Council requests the committee
to submit to Government with all expedition, a plan for the accomplishment of
this purpose.[3]
All
these evolutionary changes in education under the British Raj influenced
Mahatma Gandhi to take a revolutionary step for making a sound education system
which would make Indians self-reliant and self-dependent. It was proved when he
introduced the scheme of Basic Education at Wardha conference in 1937. The
historical perspectives of Secondary education need to be realized for the
present research of the topic.
THE WOOD’S DESPATCH (1854):
In 1854 the chairman of the Board of control was Sir Charles wood. So the
declaration of education policy of the company was named as ‘Wood’s Despatch’.
The main recommendations of the despatch are as follows:
1. The
dispatch clearly accepted the responsibility of the British Government for
education in India.
2. The
main aim of education policy was to raise intellectual fitness and moral
character of the educands.
3. Wood
recognized the usefulness of oriental literature like Sanskrit, Arabic and
Persian
4. The
Despatch pointed out the importance of English as the medium of instruction.
5. The
Despatch recommended for the establishment of the Department of Public
instruction. Its highest official should be designated as the Director of
Public Instruction assisted by Deputy Director, Inspectors and Deputy
Inspectors of schools.
6. The
Despatch suggested for the setting up of the universities at Calcutta, Bombay
and Madras and if necessary at other places. There were other recommendations
also.
In
1859 Lord Stanley supported the Despatch of 1854. Due to Stanley’s Despatch,
the provincial Governments were made responsible for primary education. By
1871, the department of education came under the direct control of provincial
Governments. During the regime of Lord Mayo the Provincial Governments were
authorized to make expenditure on education for its development.[4]
The Provincial Governments were empowered during reign of Lord Lyton. All these
developments reflected in the report of Hunter commission.
HUNTER COMMISSION: Lord
Ripon wanted to assess the development and to remove the defects of education
in India. He appointed The Indian Education commission in India on February 3,
1882 under the Chairmanship of William Hunter.
The Aims and Objectives
of the Commission:
1. To
assess the position of Primary education and to suggest for its reforms
2. To
evaluate the contribution of the Missionaries in the field of education.
3. To
find out the position of the Government Institutions and whether it should be
allowed to continue.
4. To
assess the utility of Grant- in- aid system and to find out whether the private
enterprise needs to receive encouragement from the Government.
5. To
study the problems of education and to suggest the remedies for its
improvement.
Although
the commission worked very hard for full ten months and collected more than 300
suggestions from people of our country, it could not give any new ideas of
reform. The standard of education fell down due to paucity of funds. Bookish
knowledge was overemphasized. The sole purpose of education of students was to
pass the examination. They were not given practical experiences useful to their
real life situation. Nothing useful to practical life was taught in the existed
system. Indians were not aware of the situation. Bookish knowledge was not
given emphasis in Gandhian educational thought. He prioritized on practicality
and application of education.
SHIMLA EDUCATION
CONFERENCE (1901): Lord Curzon convened a
conference at Shimla for initiating reforms of Indian education. Various aspects of Primary, secondary and
Higher education were covered for discussion in the conference and the
following policies were declared.
1. British
Government will control the system of education
2.
Public Institutions
will be established as the model institution of private institutions.
3.
The central Govt. will
conduct and control over Indian education particularly University education.
4.
Qualitative development
of education was given more emphasis.
5.
The Government will
spend more funds for the development of education.
In
Shimla conference Indian representatives were not allowed and the Government
wanted to change the system to abolish the national feelings and national
sentiment.
INDIAN UNIVERSITY COMMISSION (1902):
Lord Curzon appointed Indian University Commission to make university education
qualitatively expanded. The commission aimed at laying down the procedures by
which the standard of higher education may go up. It suggested ways and means
for the organization and working of Indian university. The Senate and Syndicate
are suggested to be reorganized. Managing Committee was formed in every
college. Suitable recommendations were made to change the curriculum of higher
education. On the basis of the suggestion of Indian University Commission Lord
Curzon decided to frame a new educational policy and Indian University Act was
passed on March 11, 1904. The Act highlighted that the courses are absolutely
bookish and students try to pass the examination by cramming the material.
Industrial and technological education is neglected.
Gokhale’s Bill 1911:
Gokhale Bill was introduced on March 16, 1911
in the Legislative Assembly. The object of the bill was to provide free and
compulsory elementary education in the country. The main suggestion of the bill
was that the Primary education should be made compulsory for the boys and girls
of the age groups of 6 to 10. The defaulting guardians should be penalized for
non-compliance of the provisions of sending their wards to recognized primary
schools. Now the RTE of 2009 clarified the right of the children of the age
group of 6 to 14 a fundamental right of free and compulsory education in 21 -A
and guardian’s compulsion was stated in 51-A as the fundamental duties to
arrange education of their wards.
SADLER COMMISSION (1917-19):
The Commission under the Chairmanship of Sir M.E. Sadler of 1917-1919 drew
attention to the following defects of Secondary education:
1. The
secondary schools are suffering from lack of useful educational tools and
equipments.
2. Secondary education had become over influenced
by Public examination
3. The
quality of secondary education has fallen down to a deplorable degree.
4. The
secondary schools are not visited and inspected regularly. So suggestions for
its improvement were not received.
5. Suitable
subjects for intermediate classes are not included in the curriculum of
secondary education. The commission suggested that secondary education at the
time neither prepared students for University education nor did it create
self-dependence in youths. So the secondary education should be put on the
right track for showing a desirable direction to University.
HARTOG COMMITTEE OF 1928:
The Simon Commission appointed a sub-Committee with Sir Philip Hartog as the
Chairman to enquire into the growth of education in British India and
potentialities of progress. The committee was not satisfied with the progress
of secondary education as much attention was paid to higher education in
between 1882-1922. The Committee found that out of every 100 students in class
1 only 19 pupils read in class IV in 1925-26. The committee pointed out about
the ‘Wastage and stagnation’. It suggested for the introduction of varied
curricula in the middle schools and provision for alternative courses
particularly for industrial and commercial careers.
WOOD ABOTT REPORT OF 1937: Abbott report suggested for the development
of educational provision of girls and women. The main recommendations are:
1. Infant
classes should be entrusted to trained teachers and women education should be
given paramount importance
2. The
education of children of primary schools should be based upon the interest of
the children. Concentration on narrow bookish leaning should not be
entertained.
3. The
curriculum in the middle classes should be closely related to the interest of
the children.
4. The
medium of instruction will be the mother tongue and English will be a
compulsory second language.
5. Attention
to be paid for teaching fine arts and qualified trained teachers to be
appointed.
6. The pre-service education course of teachers
for primary and middle schools should be of three years without any gap.
7. Vocational education will be continued
parallel with the general education
8. The
Government should establish a vocational training college working in close
association with an ordinary training college.
All
these considerations and changes in the field of education are needed to get
highlighted to realize the historical perspectives and development of Secondary
Education of West Bengal and the implications of the views of Mahatma Gandhi in
Secondary Education.
WARDHA SCHEME (1937): Gandhi
initiated experimentation on education both in India and in Africa and
formulated his valuable thought. He finalized and adopted a scheme of education
which was published in the columns of ‘Harijan’ in the year of 1937. The scheme containing the main features was
placed in the All India National Education Conference on the 22nd
and 3rd October, 1937. Mahatma Gandhi himself presided over the
meeting of the conference. Education Ministers of seven provinces attended the
conference. The scheme was popularly known as the Wardha scheme or ‘Basic
education scheme’. A committee was unanimously formed in the conference and
appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain to prepare a detailed
syllabus of this scheme of education. The committee submitted its report
containing detailed syllabus and other suggestions. A new scheme of education
for the development of body, mind and soul was developed giving emphasis on the
development of 3Hs-Head, Hand and Heart. Suggestions were covered on
Supervision, Examination system, teacher’s training. Gandhi again submitted his scheme covering
Pre-basic, Basic, and Post Basic education and adult education in Sevagram
conference in 1945. He suggested pre-basic education for the children less than
six years of age, basic education for the age group of six years to fourteen
years and post basic education was for the students of fourteen to eighteen years.
University education will aim at national and social needs. Community
improvement was given priority on adult education.
Basic
education was signified by the term ‘Basic’ because it will make the bases of
life. The scheme intimately related with the basic needs of the children. It
gave emphasis on the drawing out of the best potentialities in child and man.
It had given emphasis on the ancient tradition and culture of our country. The
scheme was meant for the common standard of education for the common people
irrespective of colour, caste, creed and religion.
Ministry
of education, Government of India, stated in a pamphlet, “ This basic
education, is not only a valuable and integral part of the priceless legacy
that Mahatma Gandhi left the nation, but embodies certain educational ideas and
principles of great significance that have been welcomed and endorsed by
distinguished and discerning educationists in India and abroad.”[5]
The special feature which drew the attention of the people was the basic
education advocated free, compulsory and universal education to the students of
age group of 7 to 14 years which was reflected later in Article 45.
SARGENT REPORT (1944): Sir John Sargent, the then Educational
Adviser to the Government of India was asked to prepare a memorandum on post
war educational development in India and the report published was entitled by
the C.A.B.E.as “Post war Educational Development in India. The report aimed at
different points to attain the educational standard of contemporary England
with in a period of 40 years.
It provides for:[6]
1. A
reasonable provision of pre-primary education for children between 3 and 6
years of age in nursery schools.
2. Universal,
compulsory and free primary or basic education for all children between the
ages of 6 and 14 divided in junior basic (6-11) and Senior Basic (11-14).
3. Secondary
or high school education for six years for selected children in the age group
of 11-17
4. Two
types of schools-Academic High School providing instruction in Arts and Science
and Technical High Schools specializing in applied sciences industrial and
commercial subjects.
5. University
education including three years degree course and one year intermediate course
to be transferred to High schools
6. Technical,
commercial and Art Education and four types of institutions-
a) Junior
Technical or Industrial Institution or Trade school with a two year course
after the senior Basic stage
b) Technical
or Industrial Institution or Trade School with a two year course after the
Junior Basic stage
c) Technical
High school with a six years course after the Junior Basic stage
d) Senior
Technical Institution and University
technological departments
e) Adult education both vocational and
non-vocational for nine crore illiterates
f) Full
provisions for the training of teachers for pre-primary, Junior Basic and
Senior Basic schools
g) Special
schools for children suffering from mental and physical handicaps
h) A
proper educational administrative system with a stern Education Department at
the center.[7]
[2]Banerjee, J. P.(1985) Education In India, Kolkata: Central
Library Publication, p.p. 9-10
[3] Aggarwal,
J.C. (1996) Teacher and education in a
developing Society. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pvt. Ltd.
[4] Chandra,
S.S. (2003). Indian Education
Development, Problems, Issues and Trend, Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
[5] Dash, B.N. and Dash
Nibedita.(2009).Thoughts and Theories of Indian Educational thinkers, New
Delhi: Dominant Publisher and Distributers, p. 130.
[6]
Ramat, P. L. (1981) History of Indian
Education, Agra: Ramprasad and sons.
[7] Chandra, S.S. (2003) Indian Education Development, Problems, Issues and Trend, Meerut: R. Lall Book Depot.
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